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What is Language?

Language is a system of communication that uses symbols—such as spoken or written words, gestures, or signs—to convey meaning between individuals or groups. It allows people to express thoughts, emotions, ideas, and information.

Key Characteristics of Language:

Symbolic: Uses symbols (words, signs, sounds) that represent ideas or objects.
Structured: Follows rules (grammar and syntax) that govern how symbols are combined.
Dynamic: Evolves over time with new words and expressions.
Cultural: Reflects the beliefs, values, and norms of a society.
Communicative: Enables interaction, understanding, and expression.

Types of Language:

Spoken language (e.g., English, Hindi)
Written language (books, texts)
Sign language (visual gestures used by the deaf community)
Programming language (used to communicate with computers)

What is Word?

A word is the smallest meaningful unit of language that can stand alone and convey a specific idea or meaning.

Key Characteristics of a Word:

Meaningful: Every word has a meaning (e.g., "tree," "run," "happy").
Independent or Combined: It can be used alone or combined with other words to form sentences.
Categorized: Words belong to parts of speech such as:
- Nouns (person, place, thing) – e.g., "book"
- Verbs (actions) – e.g., "run"
- Adjectives (descriptions) – e.g., "beautiful"
- Adverbs (describe actions) – e.g., "quickly"

Example:

In the sentence "The cat sleeps", each word—"The", "cat", and "sleeps"—has a distinct role and meaning.

What is Sentence?

A sentence is a group of words arranged in a specific order that expresses a complete thought, idea, or statement.

Key Features of a Sentence:

Complete Meaning: It conveys a full idea (e.g., "She is reading a book.").
Subject and Predicate: A sentence typically includes:
- Subject: Who or what the sentence is about (e.g., She)
- Predicate: What is being said about the subject (e.g., is reading a book)
Begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark (period, question mark, or exclamation point).

Types of Sentences:

Declarative: Makes a statement – I like coffee.
Interrogative: Asks a question – Do you like coffee?
Imperative: Gives a command – Drink your coffee.
Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion – What a great coffee!

What are the types of sentences?

There are four main types of sentences, each serving a different purpose in communication:

1. Declarative Sentence

Purpose: Makes a statement or gives information.
Ends with: a period (.)
Example: The sky is blue.

2. Interrogative Sentence

Purpose: Asks a question.
Ends with: a question mark (?)
Example: Are you coming to the party?

3. Imperative Sentence

Purpose: Gives a command, instruction, or request.
Ends with: a period (.) or exclamation mark (!) depending on tone
Example: Please close the door. / Stop right there!

4. Exclamatory Sentence

Purpose: Expresses strong emotions or excitement.
Ends with: an exclamation mark (!)
Example: What a beautiful sunset!

Sentence may be divided into two types.

Affirmative Sentence:

An affirmative sentence is a type of declarative sentence that states or affirms something as true or positive—it does not contain negation (like not, never, no, etc.).

Structure:

Subject + Verb + Object (optional)

Examples:

She loves music.
They are playing in the park.
I have completed my homework.
We will go to the market tomorrow.

Negative Sentence:

A negative sentence is a sentence that expresses denial, refusal, or contradiction. It usually includes negative words like not, never, no, nothing, nobody, etc.

Structure:

Subject + auxiliary/helping verb + NOT + main verb + object (if any)

Examples:

She does not like coffee.
I am not going to the party.
They haven’t finished their work.
We never eat junk food.

Affirmative vs Negative:

Affirmative: He speaks English.
Negative: He does not speak English.

Parts of Speech:

Parts of speech are the classifications of words based on their roles and functions in a sentence, such as naming, describing, acting, connecting, or expressing emotions.

There are eight types of parts of speech.

1. Noun

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Types:
- Proper Noun: India, John, Google
- Common Noun: city, man, company
- Abstract Noun: happiness, love, freedom
- Collective Noun: team, flock, bunch
- Countable & Uncountable: apples (countable), water (uncountable)
Examples:
- The dog barked loudly.
- She lives in Delhi.

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

Types:
- Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
- Possessive Pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
- Reflexive Pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, etc.
- Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that
- Demonstrative Pronouns: this, that, these, those
Examples:
- John is kind. He helps everyone.
- This is my book.

3. Verb

A verb expresses action or state of being.

Types:
- Action Verb: run, eat, write
- Linking Verb: is, are, was, seem
- Helping/Auxiliary Verb: have, do, will, can
Examples:
- She runs fast.
- He is a doctor.

4. Adjective

An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.

Types:
- Descriptive: beautiful, tall
- Quantitative: some, many, few
- Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
- Possessive: my, your, his, her
- Interrogative: which, what
Examples:
- The blue sky looks amazing.
- He bought three apples.

5. Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, often ending in "-ly".

Answers questions like: How? When? Where? How often? To what extent?
Examples:
- She sings beautifully.
- He always arrives early.

6. Preposition

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in the sentence (often related to time, place, or direction).

Common Prepositions: in, on, at, under, over, to, from, with, by
Examples:
- The book is on the table.
- She came from Japan.

7. Conjunction

A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses.

Types:
- Coordinating: and, but, or, nor, so, yet, for
- Subordinating: because, although, since, unless, while
- Correlative: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also
Examples:
- I want tea and coffee.
- She stayed home because it was raining.

8. Interjection

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses emotion or sudden feeling. It often stands alone and is followed by an exclamation mark.

Examples:
- Wow! That’s amazing.
- Oops! I dropped it.

Here is a detailed discussion on Nouns, one of the most important parts of speech in English grammar:

What is a Noun?

A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing, animal, or abstract idea.

Examples:

Person: teacher, doctor, Riya
Place: school, Paris, hospital
Thing: book, pen, phone
Animal: tiger, cat, elephant
Idea/Feeling: honesty, love, happiness

Types of Nouns

1. Proper Noun

Names a specific person, place, or organization.
Always capitalized.
Examples: Ram, India, Google, Monday

2. Common Noun

Refers to general names of people, places, or things.
Not capitalized (unless at the beginning of a sentence).
Examples: city, man, river, car

3. Concrete Noun

Something you can see, touch, hear, smell, or taste.
Examples: apple, music, chair, perfume

4. Abstract Noun

Refers to ideas, qualities, or emotions—things you cannot touch.
Examples: freedom, kindness, sadness

5. Collective Noun

Refers to a group of people, animals, or things as a single unit.
Examples: team, family, class, herd

6. Countable Noun

Nouns you can count.
Examples: books, apples, cars

7. Uncountable Noun

Nouns you cannot count individually.
Examples: water, milk, rice, air

8. Material Noun

Refers to substances or materials.
Examples: gold, silver, cotton, iron

Functions of a Noun in a Sentence

Nouns can serve different roles, such as:

Here are the functions of a noun explained without a table:

Subject of a Sentence:
A noun often acts as the subject—the person or thing doing the action.
Example: Riya is singing.
Object of a Verb:
A noun can be the object that receives the action of the verb.
Example: She reads a book.
Object of a Preposition:
Nouns follow prepositions to complete a prepositional phrase.
Example: The cat is under the table.
Subject Complement:
A noun can rename or describe the subject after a linking verb.
Example: He is a doctor.
Object Complement:
A noun can rename or describe the object.
Example: They made her the leader.
Possessive Noun (Showing Ownership):
A noun can show possession or belonging.
Example: This is Ravi's car.

Examples in Sentences:

Ravi is a good boy. (Proper Noun, Common Noun)
The team won the match. (Collective Noun)
She has honesty and confidence. (Abstract Nouns)
I need water to drink. (Uncountable Noun)
They saw five tigers in the zoo. (Countable Noun)

What is Pronoun?

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence to avoid repetition. Pronouns make sentences shorter and smoother. They represent people, things, or ideas without naming them directly.

Types of Pronouns

Personal Pronouns:
- Definition: Personal pronouns represent specific people or things and change based on the subject, object, or possession.
- Examples:
  - Subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
  - Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
  - Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She is coming to the party. (Subject)
  - John saw her yesterday. (Object)
  - The book is mine. (Possession)

Reflexive Pronouns:
- Definition: Reflexive pronouns reflect the action of the subject back to itself. They end in -self or -selves.
- Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
- Examples in Sentences:
  - I did it myself.
  - She looked at herself in the mirror.
  - They enjoyed the party themselves.

Intensive Pronouns:
- Definition: Intensive pronouns emphasize a noun or pronoun in the sentence but don't change the meaning of the sentence if removed.
- Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
- Examples in Sentences:
  - The president himself delivered the speech.
  - I will handle this task myself.

Demonstrative Pronouns:
- Definition: Demonstrative pronouns point to specific things or people. They include this, that, these, those.
- Examples in Sentences:
  - This is my favorite book.
  - Those were great days.
  - That is the house I want to buy.

Interrogative Pronouns:
- Definition: Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. They include who, whom, whose, which, what.
- Examples in Sentences:
  - Who is coming to the party?
  - What do you want for dinner?
  - Which is your book?

Relative Pronouns:
- Definition: Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and connect them to the main sentence. They include who, whom, whose, which, that.
- Examples in Sentences:
  - The woman who called me is my aunt.
  - This is the book that I bought yesterday.
  - The car which broke down was mine.

Indefinite Pronouns:
- Definition: Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. They include someone, anyone, everyone, no one, some, all, many, few, none, etc..
- Examples in Sentences:
  - Everyone is invited to the party.
  - Some are coming to the meeting.
  - Many believe in the power of education.

Possessive Pronouns:
- Definition: Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession and replace possessive nouns.
- Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
- Examples in Sentences:
  - The book is mine.
  - This house is ours.

Uses and Importance of Pronouns:

Avoid Repetition:
- Without pronouns, we would have to repeat nouns frequently, making sentences longer and harder to read.
  - Example without pronouns: "John went to John's house to pick up John's book."
  - Example with pronouns: "He went to his house to pick up his book."
Clarity:
- Pronouns help in maintaining clarity, especially when the noun being replaced is already known or easily understood from context.
Fluency and Natural Speech:
- Pronouns help in creating more natural and fluent speech or writing. They allow for smoother conversation and narrative flow.

Common Mistakes with Pronouns:

Incorrect Pronoun Agreement:
- The pronoun must agree with the noun it replaces in both number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine).
- Incorrect: Everyone should bring their books.
- Correct: Everyone should bring his/her book.
  (Note: Some style guides accept the singular their as gender-neutral.)
Misplaced Reflexive Pronouns:
- Reflexive pronouns should not be used as subjects.
- Incorrect: Himself is going to the store.
- Correct: He is going to the store.

Pronoun Example:

When the teacher called me, I handed her the paper. She smiled at me.

In this example:

me is a personal object pronoun (the object of the verb called and handed),
her is a personal object pronoun (the object of the verb smiled),
She is a subject pronoun (subject of smiled).

What is Adjective?

An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun in a sentence. It provides more information about the qualities, quantity, or characteristics of the noun or pronoun it modifies.

Functions of an Adjective

Describes the Noun/Pronoun:
Adjectives describe the size, shape, color, number, or other qualities of a noun or pronoun.
- Example: The blue sky is beautiful.
  - Here, "blue" describes the noun "sky."
Gives More Information:
Adjectives help to make sentences more informative by providing details.
- Example: She wore a beautiful dress.
  - "Beautiful" adds more information about the dress.

Types of Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives:
- These adjectives describe the qualities or features of a noun.
- Examples: happy, tall, colorful, old, round
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She has long hair.
  - He is a smart student.
Quantitative Adjectives:
- These adjectives express the quantity or amount of something, but not the exact number.
- Examples: some, much, little, several, few, many, plenty
- Examples in Sentences:
  - I have many books.
  - There is little hope left.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
- These adjectives point to specific nouns and are usually followed by a noun.
- Examples: this, that, these, those
- Examples in Sentences:
  - This car is mine.
  - Those apples look fresh.
Possessive Adjectives:
- These adjectives show ownership or possession.
- Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
- Examples in Sentences:
  - My brother is very talented.
  - Their house is near the park.
Interrogative Adjectives:
- These adjectives are used to ask questions about nouns.
- Examples: which, what, whose
- Examples in Sentences:
  - Which book do you want?
  - What color do you prefer?
Comparative Adjectives:
- These adjectives compare two nouns or pronouns, often ending in -er or using more.
- Examples: smarter, taller, more beautiful, more intelligent
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She is taller than her brother.
  - This book is more interesting than that one.
Superlative Adjectives:
- These adjectives compare three or more nouns or pronouns, often ending in -est or using most.
- Examples: smartest, tallest, most beautiful, most intelligent
- Examples in Sentences:
  - He is the smartest student in the class.
  - That was the most exciting movie I’ve seen.
Compound Adjectives:
- These adjectives are formed by combining two or more words (often hyphenated).
- Examples: well-known, high-pitched, part-time
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She is a well-known author.
  - He has a high-pitched voice.

Position of Adjectives in Sentences

Before the Noun: Most adjectives come before the noun they modify.
- Example: I bought a new car.
  (Here, "new" modifies the noun "car.")
After the Linking Verb (as Subject Complement): Some adjectives follow a linking verb (like is, are, was, were) and describe the subject.
- Example: The cake smells delicious.
  (Here, "delicious" describes the subject "cake" after the linking verb "smells.")

Order of Adjectives

When using more than one adjective to describe a noun, the adjectives generally follow a specific order. The typical order is:

Quantity/Number
Opinion
Size
Age
Shape
Color
Proper adjective (usually nationality, origin)
Material
Purpose

Example: Two lovely small old round blue French wooden chairs.

"Two" (quantity), "lovely" (opinion), "small" (size), "old" (age), "round" (shape), "blue" (color), "French" (proper adjective), "wooden" (material), "chairs" (purpose).

Examples in Sentences:

Descriptive: He wore a green shirt.
Quantitative: We have few options left.
Demonstrative: I like this cake.
Possessive: Her car is parked outside.
Comparative: This test is easier than the last one.
Superlative: She is the best dancer in the class.

Common Mistakes with Adjectives

Using the wrong form of comparison:
- Incorrect: This is the more better option.
- Correct: This is the better option.
Misplacing adjectives:
- Incorrect: I have a dog big.
- Correct: I have a big dog.
Using adjectives instead of adverbs:
- Incorrect: She sings beautiful.
- Correct: She sings beautifully.

Conclusion

Adjectives add richness and clarity to sentences by describing nouns or pronouns in various ways. They help specify qualities, numbers, and more, making communication more precise and effective.

What is Adverb?

An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb in a sentence. Adverbs provide more detail about how, when, where, to what extent, or how often something occurs.

Functions of an Adverb

Modifying a Verb:
An adverb can describe how, when, where, or to what degree an action is performed.
- Example: She sings beautifully.
  (Here, "beautifully" modifies the verb sings by describing how she sings.)
Modifying an Adjective:
An adverb can modify an adjective by intensifying or changing its degree.
- Example: He is very tall.
  (Here, "very" modifies the adjective tall to indicate the degree of height.)
Modifying Another Adverb:
An adverb can also modify another adverb, providing further detail on how something is done.
- Example: She runs extremely quickly.
  (Here, "extremely" modifies the adverb quickly to intensify the speed of the running.)

Types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner:
- These adverbs describe how an action is performed.
- Examples: quickly, slowly, beautifully, carefully, well
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She danced gracefully.
  - He answered the question confidently.
Adverbs of Time:
- These adverbs describe when an action occurs.
- Examples: now, later, soon, yesterday, today, always, never, once, then
- Examples in Sentences:
  - I will call you later.
  - We will meet tomorrow.
Adverbs of Place:
- These adverbs describe where an action happens.
- Examples: here, there, everywhere, nowhere, above, below
- Examples in Sentences:
  - The children are playing outside.
  - He looked everywhere for his keys.
Adverbs of Frequency:
- These adverbs describe how often an action occurs.
- Examples: always, often, frequently, usually, sometimes, rarely, never
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She always wakes up early.
  - They rarely go to the movies.
Adverbs of Degree:
- These adverbs describe how much or to what extent an action is performed or a quality is present.
- Examples: very, quite, almost, too, enough, extremely, completely
- Examples in Sentences:
  - The cake is extremely delicious.
  - He is very tall.
Adverbs of Probability:
- These adverbs describe the likelihood or probability of an action occurring.
- Examples: probably, certainly, definitely, maybe, perhaps
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She will probably arrive late.
  - He is certainly coming to the party.
Interrogative Adverbs:
- These adverbs are used to ask questions about how, when, or where something happens.
- Examples: how, when, where, why
- Examples in Sentences:
  - How did you manage to finish early?
  - Where are we going next?

Position of Adverbs in Sentences

Adverbs Modifying Verbs:
When an adverb modifies a verb, it usually comes after the verb.
- Example: She sings beautifully.
  ("beautifully" modifies the verb sings.)
Adverbs Modifying Adjectives:
When an adverb modifies an adjective, it typically comes before the adjective.
- Example: She is very tall.
  ("very" modifies the adjective tall.)
Adverbs Modifying Other Adverbs:
When an adverb modifies another adverb, it usually comes before the second adverb.
- Example: She runs extremely quickly.
  ("extremely" modifies the adverb quickly.)
Adverbs of Time (at the beginning of the sentence):
Adverbs of time can often appear at the beginning of a sentence.
- Example: Tomorrow, we will go to the beach.
Adverbs of Frequency (before the main verb):
Adverbs like always, often, usually typically go before the main verb but after the verb to be.
- Example: I always go to the gym in the morning.
  She is always happy.

Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adverbs

Comparative Adverbs:
- Some adverbs can be made into comparative forms to compare two actions, often by adding -er or using more.
- Examples: faster, more quickly, better, more beautifully
- Examples in Sentences:
  - He runs faster than I do.
  - She sings more beautifully than anyone else.
Superlative Adverbs:
- Some adverbs can be made into superlative forms to compare more than two actions, often by adding -est or using most.
- Examples: fastest, most quickly, best, most beautifully
- Examples in Sentences:
  - He runs the fastest of all the athletes.
  - She sings the most beautifully in the choir.

Common Mistakes with Adverbs

Using Adjectives Instead of Adverbs:
Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Sometimes, people mistakenly use an adjective when they should use an adverb.
- Incorrect: She sings beautiful.
- Correct: She sings beautifully.
Double Negatives:
Sometimes, adverbs like never or not can cause confusion when used with other negatives.
- Incorrect: He doesn't never go to the gym.
- Correct: He never goes to the gym.
Confusion Between "Less" and "Fewer":
While less is used for uncountable nouns, fewer is used for countable nouns.
- Incorrect: I have less books than you.
- Correct: I have fewer books than you.

Examples in Sentences

Manner: She sings loudly.
Time: We will meet tomorrow.
Place: The children are playing outside.
Frequency: He rarely visits us.
Degree: She is extremely talented.
Probability: Probably, it will rain tomorrow.
Interrogative: When are you leaving?

Conclusion

Adverbs play an important role in adding detail to sentences, modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They help in expressing how, when, where, to what degree, and how often actions occur, making communication more descriptive and clear.

What is Verb?

A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. It is a fundamental part of any sentence because it describes what the subject is doing or what is happening to the subject.

Types of Verbs

Action Verbs:
Action verbs describe physical or mental actions performed by the subject.
- Examples: run, jump, eat, think, study, write, dance, talk
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She runs every morning.
  - They talk about their plans every day.
Linking Verbs:
Linking verbs connect the subject to a subject complement (usually a noun or adjective that describes or identifies the subject). These verbs do not show action but instead describe the state or condition of the subject.
- Examples: am, is, are, was, were, seem, become, appear, feel
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She is a teacher.
  - The cake smells delicious.
  - He became tired after the long walk.
Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs are used in combination with the main verb to create verb phrases that convey different tenses, moods, or voices. They help form questions, negations, and various tenses.
- Examples: is, are, was, were, have, has, had, will, shall, may, might, can, could
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She has finished her homework.
  - Can you help me with this?
  - They will leave tomorrow.
Modal Verbs:
Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that express necessity, possibility, ability, or permission.
- Examples: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would, shall, ought to
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She can swim very well.
  - He must finish the project by tomorrow.
Transitive Verbs:
Transitive verbs require a direct object (the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb). The action of the verb is transferred to the object.
- Examples: eat, write, read, make, build, catch
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She ate the sandwich.
  - He wrote a letter to his friend.
Intransitive Verbs:
Intransitive verbs do not require a direct object. The action does not pass onto a receiver.
- Examples: sleep, go, arrive, cry, sit, run
- Examples in Sentences:
  - She slept peacefully.
  - The children ran across the field.
Phrasal Verbs:
Phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs with one or more particles (prepositions or adverbs) that take on a different meaning than the individual words.
- Examples: pick up, turn on, give up, look after, run into
- Examples in Sentences:
  - I need to pick up some groceries.
  - She gave up smoking last year.
Stative Verbs:
Stative verbs describe states or conditions rather than actions. These verbs usually refer to thoughts, feelings, relationships, senses, or possession.
- Examples: know, believe, own, belong, feel, seem, love
- Examples in Sentences:
  - I know the answer.
  - She believes in fairies.

Tenses of Verbs

Verbs are conjugated to express different tenses, which indicate when an action occurs. Tenses are divided into three main categories:

Present Tense:
- Simple Present: Describes habitual actions, facts, and general truths.
  - Example: I study every day.
- Present Continuous: Describes actions happening at the moment of speaking.
  - Example: She is reading a book right now.
- Present Perfect: Describes actions that started in the past and continue to the present or have an effect on the present.
  - Example: They have finished their homework.
- Present Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that started in the past and continue up to the present, emphasizing the duration.
  - Example: He has been working all morning.
Past Tense:
- Simple Past: Describes actions that happened and finished in the past.
  - Example: I visited the museum yesterday.
- Past Continuous: Describes actions that were ongoing in the past.
  - Example: She was studying when I called her.
- Past Perfect: Describes actions that were completed before another point in the past.
  - Example: They had left before I arrived.
- Past Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that were ongoing in the past and finished just before another point in the past.
  - Example: I had been working for hours before I took a break.
Future Tense:
- Simple Future: Describes actions that will happen in the future.
  - Example: I will visit my grandparents next week.
- Future Continuous: Describes actions that will be ongoing in the future.
  - Example: She will be studying at 8 PM tomorrow.
- Future Perfect: Describes actions that will be completed before a certain point in the future.
  - Example: By next year, I will have graduated.
- Future Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that will be ongoing in the future up until a certain point.
  - Example: By this time next week, I will have been working here for five years.

Voice of Verbs

Verbs can also change in voice to show whether the subject is performing the action or receiving it.

Active Voice:
The subject performs the action.
- Example: The chef cooked the meal. ("Chef" is the subject performing the action of cooking.)
Passive Voice:
The subject receives the action.
- Example: The meal was cooked by the chef. ("Meal" is the subject receiving the action of being cooked.)

Verb Forms and Conjugation

Verbs change form depending on the subject, tense, and voice. There are three main forms of verbs: base form, past form, and past participle.

Base Form: The root form of the verb.
- Example: run, jump, read
Past Form: Used to indicate past actions.
- Example: ran, jumped, read (Note: "read" is pronounced differently in the past tense.)
Past Participle: Often used with auxiliary verbs in perfect tenses.
- Example: run → run, jump → jumped, read → read

Common Errors with Verbs

Subject-Verb Agreement:
Verbs must agree with their subjects in number and person.
- Incorrect: She have a book.
- Correct: She has a book.
Misuse of Tenses:
Verbs must be used correctly in terms of their tense.
- Incorrect: I have gone to the store yesterday.
- Correct: I went to the store yesterday.
Incorrect Use of Active and Passive Voice:
Choose the voice according to the emphasis of the sentence.
- Incorrect: The meal was cooked by the chef every day.
- Correct: The meal is cooked by the chef every day.

Conclusion

Verbs are one of the most crucial components of a sentence because they express actions, occurrences, and states of being. They not only give meaning to a sentence but also determine its tense, voice, and mood. Understanding how to use verbs properly can significantly improve both written and spoken communication.

What is Preposition?

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence. It typically indicates direction, location, time, cause, manner, or possession.

Definition of Preposition:

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase that shows direction, location, time, or introduces an object.

Example:
- The cat is on the table.
- He walked into the room.
- She was born in July.

Common Prepositions:

Simple Prepositions:
in, on, at, by, with, under, over, to, from, for, of, about, across, after, before, below, during

Compound Prepositions:
according to, because of, due to, next to, apart from, in front of, out of, in spite of

Types of Prepositions (Based on Usage)

1. Prepositions of Place/Position

They indicate the location or position of something.

Examples: in, on, at, under, over, beside, behind, in front of, between
Sentences:
- The keys are on the table.
- She sat next to her friend.
- The cat is under the bed.

2. Prepositions of Direction/Movement

They indicate the movement from one place to another.

Examples: to, into, onto, out of, towards, across, along, up, down
Sentences:
- He walked into the room.
- She ran across the street.
- They moved towards the exit.

3. Prepositions of Time

They indicate when something happens.

Examples: at, on, in, since, for, before, after, during, until, by
Sentences:
- I will meet you at 5 PM.
- She was born in July.
- He has been here since morning.

4. Prepositions of Cause, Reason, Purpose

They show the cause or purpose of an action.

Examples: because of, due to, for, from, out of
Sentences:
- The game was canceled due to rain.
- He was punished for his mistake.

5. Prepositions of Manner, Means, and Instrumentality

They show how something happens.

Examples: by, with, like, as
Sentences:
- He cut the paper with scissors.
- She traveled by car.

6. Prepositions of Agent or Instrument

They are used with passive voice to show who did the action.

Examples: by, with
Sentences:
- The book was written by Shakespeare.
- The door was opened with a key.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition + object (noun or pronoun) + any modifiers.

Examples:
- In the morning
- Under the old bridge
- With great care
Sentences:
- We will go in the morning.
- She lives near the river.
- He acted with confidence.

Important Notes:

Prepositions are always followed by a noun or pronoun, not a verb.
- Correct: She sat on the chair.
- Incorrect: She sat on sit.
A preposition never stands alone; it always has an object.
- Wrong: She walked into.
- Correct: She walked into the room.
Do not end formal sentences with a preposition (though it may be acceptable in informal speech).
- Formal: This is the book about which I was talking.
- Informal: This is the book I was talking about.

Common Errors with Prepositions

Incorrect: He is good in English.
Correct: He is good at English.
Incorrect: I prefer coffee than tea.
Correct: I prefer coffee to tea.
Incorrect: She is married with a doctor.
Correct: She is married to a doctor.

Conclusion:

Prepositions are small but powerful words that provide important information about the relationship between words in a sentence. Mastery of prepositions enhances both clarity and accuracy in communication.

What is Conjunction?

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. It serves as a bridge to connect ideas, maintain sentence flow, and show relationships such as contrast, cause, condition, or sequence.

Definition of Conjunction:

A conjunction is a word used to connect words or groups of words (such as phrases or clauses) to make sentences clearer and more cohesive.

Example:
- She is smart and kind.
- I was late because I missed the bus.

Types of Conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

These connect two or more words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal importance.

The main coordinating conjunctions can be remembered using the acronym: FANBOYS

For (cause/reason)
And (addition)
Nor (negative alternative)
But (contrast)
Or (choice/alternative)
Yet (unexpected contrast)
So (result/consequence)

Examples:

I wanted to go, but it started raining.
She is beautiful and intelligent.
You can have tea or coffee.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions

These connect a dependent clause to an independent clause and show relationships such as cause, time, condition, contrast, etc.

Common subordinating conjunctions:
because, although, though, since, unless, if, while, after, before, when, as, until, whereas

Examples:

I stayed home because I was sick.
Although it was raining, they played outside.
You won’t pass unless you study.

3. Correlative Conjunctions

These are pairs of conjunctions used together to relate equal sentence elements.

Common correlative pairs:

either…or
neither…nor
not only…but also
both…and
whether…or

Examples:

Either you start now, or you’ll be late.
Both the movie and the book were amazing.
She is not only talented but also hardworking.

Functions of Conjunctions

Conjunctions in Complex Sentences:

Subordinating conjunctions help form complex sentences, which have one main clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Example:
- If you work hard, you will succeed.
- She smiled although she was in pain.

Important Notes:

Never use a comma after a subordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: Because, he was sick, he stayed home.
Correct: Because he was sick, he stayed home.
Avoid overusing conjunctions in a single sentence as it can reduce clarity.
Correlative conjunctions must be used in pairs, and the sentence structure should be parallel.
Correct: She is not only beautiful but also intelligent.
Incorrect: She is not only beautiful but also she is intelligent.

Common Errors with Conjunctions:

Misusing coordinating conjunctions at the beginning of formal sentences.
(While acceptable in informal writing, it’s better to avoid in formal essays.)
- Informal: And then he left.
- Formal: Then he left.
Using wrong pairs in correlative conjunctions.
- Incorrect: Either she likes pizza nor pasta.
- Correct: Either she likes pizza or pasta.
Misplacing subordinating conjunctions.
- Incorrect: I’ll go out I finish my work after.
- Correct: I’ll go out after I finish my work.

Conclusion:

Conjunctions are essential for linking ideas, improving flow, and reducing sentence fragmentation. They help you create more complex, meaningful, and elegant sentences. Understanding the types and usage of conjunctions will greatly enhance your grammar and writing skills.

What is Interjection?

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses sudden emotion or feeling. It is used to convey reactions such as surprise, joy, anger, enthusiasm, pain, or other sentiments. Interjections are independent of the grammatical structure of a sentence.

Definition of Interjection:

An interjection is a word or short phrase used to express emotions or spontaneous feelings, often followed by an exclamation mark.

Examples:
- Wow! That’s amazing.
- Oh no! I forgot my wallet.
- Ouch! That hurt.

Characteristics of Interjections:

Stand alone or at the beginning of a sentence.
Often followed by an exclamation mark (!).
Not grammatically related to other parts of the sentence.
Convey strong emotions quickly and briefly.
Common in spoken English and informal writing.

Types of Interjections (Based on Emotion):

1. Interjections of Joy

Used to express happiness, pleasure, or delight.

Examples: Hurrah! Wow! Yay! Hurray!
Sentences:
- Hurrah! We won the match.
- Yay! I passed the exam.

2. Interjections of Surprise

Used to show shock, astonishment, or unexpected reactions.

Examples: Oh! What! Ah! Eh!
Sentences:
- Oh! I didn’t expect to see you here.
- What! You got the job?

3. Interjections of Sorrow or Pain

Used to express grief, pain, or regret.

Examples: Alas! Oh no! Ouch! Ah!
Sentences:
- Alas! He failed again.
- Ouch! That needle hurt.

4. Interjections of Greeting

Used when meeting or parting.

Examples: Hello! Hi! Hey! Goodbye! Bye!
Sentences:
- Hello! How are you?
- Bye! See you tomorrow.

5. Interjections of Approval or Praise

Used to express agreement or admiration.

Examples: Bravo! Well done! Good!
Sentences:
- Bravo! You played really well.
- Well done! You deserve this award.

6. Interjections of Calling or Attention

Used to call someone or get attention.

Examples: Listen! Look! Hey! Yo!
Sentences:
- Listen! I have something important to say.
- Hey! Wait for me!

Punctuation with Interjections:

Strong emotions: Use an exclamation mark
- Wow! That’s incredible!
Milder emotions: Use a comma
- Well, I think you’re right.

Interjections in Formal vs. Informal English:

Informal: Interjections are commonly used in speech and casual writing.
- Example: Oops! I dropped it.
Formal: Interjections are rarely used; emotions are expressed through more structured language.
- Instead of “Oh no!”, one might write: “It was unfortunate.”

Important Notes:

An interjection is not essential to the structure or meaning of a sentence.
Interjections can express a range of feelings with just one word.
They are useful in dialogues, storytelling, or emotional writing.

Conclusion:

Interjections add emotional depth and realism to language. Although they are not grammatically linked to sentences, they play a powerful role in expressing emotions instantly and making communication more lively and expressive.

Voice Change Rules:

Voice Change in English Grammar

1. What is Voice in Grammar?

In English grammar, voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates whether the subject performs or receives the action of the verb.

There are two types of voice:

Active Voice – The subject does the action.
Passive Voice – The subject receives the action.

2. Why Change Voice?

Voice is changed to:

Emphasize different parts of the sentence.
Focus on the action or receiver rather than the doer.
Use a more formal or impersonal tone (common in reports, scientific writing).

3. Structure of Active and Passive Voice

4. Rules for Changing Active to Passive Voice

Step-by-Step Process:

Identify the subject, verb, and object.
Move the object of the active voice to the subject position.
Use the appropriate form of “to be” according to the tense of the verb.
Use the past participle form of the main verb.
Add “by” + subject (optional, especially if the subject is unknown or unimportant).

5. Passive Voice for Different Tenses

Note: Future Continuous and some modal structures rarely use passive forms.

Passive Voice Across Tenses – Made Simple and Elegant

Understanding how to change sentences from active to passive voice becomes easy when you grasp how it works across different tenses. Let’s explore them one by one with simple examples:

Simple Present Tense:
Active: She writes a letter.
Passive: A letter is written by her.
Here, the helping verb “is” is paired with the past participle “written.”
Present Continuous Tense:
Active: She is writing a letter.
Passive: A letter is being written by her.
The phrase “is being” indicates an action in progress.
Present Perfect Tense:
Active: She has written a letter.
Passive: A letter has been written by her.
Notice how “has” changes to “has been” in the passive form.
Simple Past Tense:
Active: She wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by her.
The verb “was” clearly reflects the past action in a passive structure.
Past Continuous Tense:
Active: She was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by her.
The phrase “was being” conveys that the action was ongoing in the past.
Past Perfect Tense:
Active: She had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by her.
Here, “had” becomes “had been” to maintain the perfect sense in passive voice.
Simple Future Tense:
Active: She will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by her.
The future passive uses “will be” followed by the past participle.
Future Perfect Tense:
Active: She will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been written by her.
This form reflects an action that will be completed at a specific time in the future.

6. Modal Verbs in Passive Voice

Active: She can complete the work.
Passive: The work can be completed by her.

Structure:
Modal + be + past participle

Common Modals: can, could, may, might, should, must, will, would

7. Imperative Sentences in Passive

a. Positive Commands:

Active: Open the door.
Passive: Let the door be opened.

b. Negative Commands:

Active: Do not open the door.
Passive: Let the door not be opened.

8. Interrogative Sentences in Passive

a. Yes/No Questions

Active: Did he complete the task?
Passive: Was the task completed by him?

b. WH-Questions

Active: Who wrote this book?
Passive: By whom was this book written?

Active: When will they deliver the package?
Passive: When will the package be delivered?

9. Indirect Objects in Passive

Active: She gave him a gift.
Passive:

He was given a gift.
A gift was given to him.

Both are correct depending on what you want to emphasize.

10. Important Notes

Not all sentences can be made passive — intransitive verbs (that don’t take objects) cannot be changed into passive.
- Example: She sleeps early. (No passive form)
Passive voice is common in formal, academic, or objective writing (e.g., reports, research papers).

11. Common Mistakes to Avoid

Using the wrong form of the verb “be”.
Forgetting the past participle.
Applying passive voice to intransitive verbs.

Conclusion

Voice change is a crucial part of English grammar that helps you vary sentence structure, write in different styles, and maintain clarity or objectivity in writing. Mastering both active and passive voices will make your English more versatile and polished.

Narration Change:

Narration Change in English Grammar (Direct & Indirect Speech)

1. What is Narration?

Narration refers to the way we report what someone says. It helps us convey the exact words (direct speech) or the essence of those words (indirect or reported speech). Understanding narration is essential for clear and accurate communication.

2. Types of Narration

There are two main types:

Direct Speech: The speaker's exact words are quoted inside inverted commas (quotation marks). Example:
She said, “I am tired.”
Indirect Speech (Reported Speech): The speaker’s words are reported without quotation marks, often changing pronouns, tenses, and time expressions. Example:
She said that she was tired.

3. Key Rules for Changing Direct to Indirect Speech

a. Changes in Pronouns

Pronouns are adjusted based on the relationship between the speaker (subject), listener (object), and topic (third person). For instance, if the speaker uses "I" in direct speech, it may become "he" or "she" depending on who is being talked about in indirect speech.

Example:
Direct: He said, “I love this song.”
Indirect: He said that he loved that song.

b. Changes in Tense

If the reporting verb (like said, told, asked) is in the past tense, the verb in the reported speech usually moves one step back in tense. For example:

Present simple becomes past simple: “I work hard” → he said he worked hard.
Present continuous becomes past continuous: “I am working” → she said she was working.
Present perfect becomes past perfect: “I have eaten” → he said he had eaten.
Past simple becomes past perfect: “I saw it” → she said she had seen it.
Will becomes would: “I will go” → he said he would go.

If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense, the tense of the reported speech usually remains the same.

c. Changes in Time and Place Expressions

Certain words indicating time or place in direct speech are changed in reported speech. For example:

"Now" becomes "then"
"Today" becomes "that day"
"Tomorrow" becomes "the next day"
"Yesterday" becomes "the previous day"
"Here" becomes "there"
"This" becomes "that"
"Ago" becomes "before"

Example:
Direct: She said, “I saw him yesterday.”
Indirect: She said that she had seen him the previous day.

4. Changing Different Types of Sentences

A. Statements (Assertive Sentences)

Use “said that” or “told someone that” to report.
Example:
Direct: He said, “I play cricket.”
Indirect: He said that he played cricket.

B. Questions (Interrogative Sentences)

If the question is a yes/no type, use "if" or "whether." If it's a WH-question (what, where, when, how, etc.), keep the WH-word and make it a statement without a question mark.

Yes/No Question Example:
Direct: She said, “Do you like coffee?”
Indirect: She asked if I liked coffee.

WH-Question Example:
Direct: He said, “Where are you going?”
Indirect: He asked where I was going.

C. Imperative Sentences (Commands, Requests, Advice)

Use verbs like "told," "ordered," "requested," "advised," etc., depending on the tone. The verb form usually changes into an infinitive.

Examples:
Direct: He said, “Open the door.”
Indirect: He told me to open the door.

Direct: She said, “Please help me.”
Indirect: She requested me to help her.

Direct: The doctor said, “Don’t smoke.”
Indirect: The doctor advised me not to smoke.

D. Exclamatory Sentences

Use expressions like “exclaimed with joy,” “exclaimed with sorrow,” or “cried out in surprise” based on the emotion. Interjections like "hurrah," "alas," or "oh" are removed.

Examples:
Direct: He said, “Hurrah! We won the game.”
Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that they had won the game.

Direct: She said, “Alas! I failed the exam.”
Indirect: She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed the exam.

5. Special Note on Universal Truths

If the reported speech is a universal truth, scientific fact, or general habit, the tense of the sentence does not change.

Example:
Direct: The teacher said, “The sun rises in the east.”
Indirect: The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.

6. Conclusion

Mastering narration change helps in transforming direct communication into formal, indirect expressions. It enhances clarity in writing and speech, especially in storytelling, reporting, journalism, and exams. Pay close attention to the tense, pronouns, and context while converting sentences — and with practice, it becomes second nature.

What is Phrases:

What is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of words that work together as a unit, but do not contain both a subject and a verb. A phrase adds meaning to a sentence but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

Examples of Phrases:

in the morning

a piece of cake

on the table

running late

with great care

Each of these phrases gives additional information, but none of them can stand as a sentence by itself.

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Types of Phrases:

1. Noun Phrase: Acts like a noun.

Example: The big black dog barked loudly.

2. Verb Phrase: Includes the main verb and its auxiliaries.

Example: She has been studying all night.

3. Adjective Phrase: Functions like an adjective, describing a noun.

Example: The girl with the blue dress is my cousin.

4. Adverb Phrase: Functions like an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Example: He speaks in a low voice.

5. Prepositional Phrase: Begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.

Example: The book is on the table.

What is Clause?

What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate (verb). It may or may not express a complete thought.

Clauses are the foundation of English sentences. Every sentence must contain at least one clause. Some sentences contain multiple clauses.

Types of Clauses

Clauses are mainly divided into two broad types:

1. Independent Clause (Main Clause)

An independent clause is a complete sentence by itself. It has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

Examples:

She sings beautifully.
The train arrived late.
We went to the park.

These clauses can stand alone and form complete sentences.

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause)

A dependent clause also contains a subject and a verb, but does not express a complete thought. It depends on an independent clause to make sense.

Examples:

Because she was tired
When the movie ended
Although it was raining

These phrases need more information to become complete sentences.

Full sentences:

She went to bed because she was tired.
We left the theater when the movie ended.
We played outside although it was raining.

Types of Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses are classified based on the function they perform in a sentence:

A. Noun Clause

Acts like a noun (subject, object, or complement). Usually begins with that, what, who, whom, whoever, whatever, why, whether, how, etc.

Examples:

What she said made me happy. (subject)
I don’t know why he left. (object)
The truth is that he never called. (complement)

B. Adjective Clause

Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Usually begins with who, whom, whose, which, that.

Examples:

The boy who won the race is my cousin.
I like the book that you recommended.

C. Adverb Clause

Acts like an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Usually begins with subordinating conjunctions like because, although, if, when, while, as, before, after, etc.

Examples:

I stayed home because it was raining.
When she arrived, we started eating.
He works hard so that he can succeed.

Functions of Clauses in Sentences

Clauses help form simple, compound, and complex sentences.

Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause.
Example: She dances.
Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so, etc.).
Example: She dances, and he sings.
Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Example: She dances because she loves music.
Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: She dances because she loves music, and he sings while she performs.

Why Clauses Matter

Understanding clauses allows you to:

Create richer and more varied sentences
Avoid sentence fragments
Improve sentence clarity and flow
Master advanced writing and grammar skills

What is Gerund?

What is a Gerund?

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun in a sentence.

Although it looks like a verb (ending in -ing), it acts like a noun and can serve as the subject, object, or complement of a sentence.

Examples of Gerunds in Sentences:

Swimming is good exercise. (subject)
She enjoys reading. (object)
His favorite hobby is painting. (complement)

In each case, the word ending in “-ing” is not acting as a verb but as a noun.

Functions of a Gerund

A gerund can take on multiple roles in a sentence, just like a noun:

1. As Subject

The gerund begins the sentence and acts as the subject.

Example:

Dancing relaxes me.

2. As Object

The gerund receives the action of a verb.

Example:

I enjoy traveling.

3. As Object of a Preposition

Gerunds can follow prepositions and act as objects.

Example:

She’s good at drawing.
He left without saying goodbye.

4. As Subject Complement (Predicative Noun)

A gerund can appear after a linking verb and rename the subject.

Example:

Her dream is becoming a doctor.

Gerund Phrases

A gerund phrase includes the gerund and its modifiers or objects.

Example:

Eating junk food regularly is bad for health.
She loves playing the guitar in the evening.

Gerunds vs. Present Participles

Both end in -ing, but serve different functions:

Gerund = noun
Present Participle = adjective or part of continuous tense

Examples:

Gerund: Running is fun. (noun)
Participle: The running water was cold. (adjective)
Participle (verb): She is running fast. (part of verb tense)

Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds

Some verbs are usually followed by a gerund, not an infinitive:

enjoy
avoid
suggest
consider
keep
admit
finish
delay
deny
mind

Examples:

I avoid talking to strangers.
He suggested going for a walk.

Important Notes on Gerunds

Gerunds are always singular.
Possessive forms (like my, his, their) can come before a gerund:
Example: I appreciate your helping me.

Why Gerunds Matter

Understanding gerunds helps you:

Vary your sentence structure
Improve fluency and grammar accuracy
Avoid confusion between similar -ing forms

What is Infinitive?

What is an Infinitive?

An infinitive is the base form of a verb, usually preceded by "to". It often functions like a noun, but can also function as an adjective or adverb.

Structure:

to + base verb
Example: to eat, to read, to write, to dance

Types of Infinitives

Full Infinitive (with "to")
- Example: to go, to learn, to help
Bare Infinitive (without "to")
- Used after certain verbs like make, let, see, hear, feel and modal verbs
- Example: He made me cry. / She can swim.

Functions of the Infinitive

1. As Subject of a Sentence

To travel is my dream.
To read helps improve your vocabulary.

2. As Object of a Verb

She wants to learn French.
They decided to go early.

3. As a Subject Complement

His goal is to win the championship.
My hobby is to paint landscapes.

4. As Adjective (modifies a noun)

She has a lot of work to finish.
He is the first person to arrive.

5. As Adverb (modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb)

I came here to help you. (modifies “came”)
She is eager to learn. (modifies “eager”)

Infinitive Phrases

An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive along with objects or modifiers.

Examples:

She plans to study all night.
They tried to solve the problem quickly.

Common Verbs Followed by Infinitives

Some verbs are commonly followed by an infinitive:

agree
decide
hope
learn
plan
want
need
promise
refuse
expect

Examples:

I hope to pass the exam.
He promised to help me.

Infinitive vs. Gerund

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive, sometimes with a change in meaning:

I stopped smoking. (I quit the habit.)
I stopped to smoke. (I paused in order to smoke.)

Split Infinitive

When an adverb is placed between "to" and the verb. Though controversial in formal writing, it's often accepted in modern English.

Example:

She wants to really understand the topic.
(Split infinitive: "to really understand")

Negative Infinitive

To form the negative, place "not" before the infinitive.

Examples:

He decided not to go.
Try not to make mistakes.

Summary

Infinitive = "to + verb"
Acts like a noun, adjective, or adverb
Can begin a sentence or follow certain verbs
May be expanded into phrases
Has flexible uses in both simple and complex sentences

What is Participle?

What is a Participle?

A participle is a word formed from a verb that functions as an adjective. It describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.

Although it originates from a verb, a participle does not act as the main verb in the sentence. It can also form verb phrases with auxiliary verbs to indicate tense or voice.

Types of Participles

There are three main types of participles:

1. Present Participle

Form: verb + -ing
Used to show ongoing action or describe a noun.
Can also help form continuous verb tenses.

Examples:

The crying baby needs attention. (modifies “baby”)
She is reading a novel. (part of present continuous tense)

2. Past Participle

Usually ends in -ed for regular verbs; irregular verbs have different forms (e.g., eaten, gone, written).
Used to show completed action or describe a noun.
Also used in perfect and passive verb tenses.

Examples:

The broken glass was on the floor. (modifies “glass”)
She has finished her work. (present perfect tense)
The letter was written by her. (passive voice)

3. Perfect Participle

Form: having + past participle
Shows an action completed before another action.

Examples:

Having finished the exam, he left the hall.
Having worked all night, she was tired.

Functions of Participles

A. As Adjectives

Participles can modify nouns or pronouns just like adjectives.

Examples:

Boiling water can cause burns.
I saw the injured bird in the garden.

B. In Verb Tenses

Participles are essential in forming continuous, perfect, and passive tenses.

Examples:

She is studying. (present continuous)
They had left. (past perfect)
The food was cooked. (passive voice)

C. In Participle Phrases

A participle phrase includes the participle and related words that act as adjectives.

Examples:

Running through the park, he tripped and fell.
Tired from work, she went straight to bed.

Note: A participle phrase should be placed near the noun it modifies to avoid confusion (dangling participle).

Common Errors: Dangling Participles

A dangling participle occurs when the noun being modified is missing or unclear.

Incorrect:
Running through the forest, the trees looked blurry.
(Who was running? The sentence implies the trees were running.)

Correct:
Running through the forest, I saw blurry trees.

Why Participles Matter

Understanding participles:

Adds variety and style to your writing
Helps form correct tenses and descriptions
Avoids sentence errors (like dangling modifiers)

Participles vs. Gerunds vs. Infinitives

Here's a detailed discussion comparing Participles, Gerunds, and Infinitives—three verbals that originate from verbs but function differently in English grammar:

Introduction to Verbals

Verbals are words derived from verbs that do not function as main verbs in a sentence. Instead, they act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. The three main types of verbals are participles, gerunds, and infinitives. Although they all originate from verbs, they serve different grammatical purposes and appear in different forms.

1. Participles

Participles act as adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns. They come in different forms:

Present participle: formed by adding -ing to a verb (e.g., running, laughing).
Past participle: for regular verbs, it ends in -ed (e.g., baked, painted); for irregular verbs, it varies (e.g., gone, eaten, written).
Perfect participle: uses having + past participle (e.g., having finished, having seen).

Examples:

The burning candle flickered in the dark. (present participle modifying "candle")
The broken window was dangerous. (past participle modifying "window")
Having completed the task, she went out. (perfect participle phrase)

Participles are commonly used in descriptive phrases and to form verb tenses like continuous or perfect forms.

2. Gerunds

A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun. Despite looking like a present participle, a gerund performs completely different roles.

Examples:

Reading improves your vocabulary. (subject of the sentence)
He enjoys swimming in the ocean. (object of the verb "enjoys")
They talked about traveling abroad. (object of a preposition)

Gerunds can be subjects, objects, subject complements, and objects of prepositions. You’ll often find them after certain verbs like enjoy, avoid, consider, and suggest.

3. Infinitives

An infinitive is the base form of a verb, often preceded by "to" (e.g., to run, to speak, to learn). It can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb in a sentence.

Examples:

To succeed is his dream. (noun – subject)
She has a book to read. (adjective – modifies "book")
He paused to think. (adverb – explains why he paused)

Infinitives are very flexible in usage and often follow certain verbs (like want, need, hope, plan, decide), adjectives (eager to help, happy to see), or serve as the subject of a sentence.

Infinitives can also be negative (not to go) and split for emphasis (to boldly go).

Key Differences in Use

Participles describe a noun or pronoun (like adjectives) and are used in continuous or perfect tenses.
Gerunds act as nouns and are always formed with -ing.
Infinitives are the "to + base verb" form and can serve multiple roles—noun, adjective, or adverb.

Although they may look similar (especially gerunds and present participles), their functions in a sentence distinguish them clearly.

Conclusion

Understanding the differences between participles, gerunds, and infinitives enhances clarity and precision in both writing and speech. While all three are verbals and derived from verbs, their grammatical roles differ significantly: participles describe, gerunds name actions, and infinitives express purpose, intention, or identity. Mastering their usage allows you to create more dynamic and grammatically rich sentences.

Prepositions & Phrases:

Simple Prepositions (One-word)

These are single-word prepositions that typically indicate relationships of time, place, direction, cause, manner, and instrumentality.

1. About – The book is about ancient civilizations.

2. Above – The picture hangs above the fireplace.

3. Across – She walked across the street.

4. After – We went for coffee after the movie.

5. Against – He leaned against the wall.

6. Along – They strolled along the beach.

7. Among – She was sitting among friends.

8. Around – The earth revolves around the sun.

9. At – Meet me at the station.

10. Before – Finish your homework before dinner.

11. Behind – The car is parked behind the building.

12. Below – The temperature dropped below zero.

13. Beneath – The treasure lies beneath the ocean floor.

14. Beside – She sat beside her mother.

15. Besides – Besides tennis, he plays football.

16. Between – The park is between the school and the library.

17. Beyond – The road continues beyond the hill.

18. By – The book was written by an unknown author.

19. Despite – Despite the rain, they went hiking.

20. Down – He ran down the stairs.

21. During – We stayed indoors during the storm.

22. Except – Everyone except John attended the meeting.

23. For – This gift is for you.

24. From – She traveled from Paris to Rome.

25. In – The keys are in the drawer.

26. Inside – It's warm inside the house.

27. Into – He jumped into the pool.

28. Like – She sings like a professional.

29. Near – The school is near the park.

30. Of – The cover of the book is torn.

31. Off – Please take your shoes off the table.

32. On – The book is on the table.

33. Onto – He climbed onto the roof.

34. Out – She went out to the market.

35. Outside – The kids are playing outside.

36. Over – The plane flew over the city.

37. Past – He walked past the bakery.

38. Since – She has been here since morning.

39. Through – They walked through the tunnel.

40. Throughout – The festival is celebrated throughout the country.

41. Till – Wait till I come back.

42. To – She went to the store.

43. Toward – He moved toward the door.

44. Under – The cat is under the table.

45. Underneath – The coin rolled underneath the couch.

46. Until – Stay here until I return.

47. Up – He climbed up the ladder.

48. Upon – Once upon a time, there was a king.

49. With – She came with her brother.

50. Within – Complete the task within an hour.

51. Without – He left without his phone.

52. Aboard – They are aboard the ship.

53. Amid – Amid the chaos, she remained calm.

54. Amongst – He was popular amongst his peers.

55. Concerning – He spoke concerning the issue.

56. Considering – Considering the weather, we stayed in.

57. Excluding – Excluding taxes, the price is $100.

58. Following – Following the meeting, we had lunch.

59. Including – Everyone, including Sarah, was present.

60. Minus – Ten minus two equals eight.

61. Notwithstanding – Notwithstanding the delay, the event started.

62. Per – The speed limit is 60 km per hour.

63. Regarding – He inquired regarding the job.

64. Respecting – Respecting her wishes, we left early.

65. Round – They sat round the fire.

66. Save – All save one were present.

67. Than – She is taller than her brother.

68. Versus – It's a debate of nature versus nurture.

69. Via – He traveled via train.

70. As – He works as a teacher.

Here is a list of commonly used prepositional phrases along with their meanings to help you understand and use them effectively in writing and speaking:

Common Prepositional Phrases and Their Meanings

According to – as stated or reported by
Example: According to the news, it will rain tomorrow.
In front of – at the front side of something
Example: She parked the car in front of the gate.
On behalf of – as a representative of someone
Example: I spoke on behalf of my team.
In spite of – despite something
Example: He went out in spite of the heavy rain.
Due to – because of
Example: The game was cancelled due to bad weather.
Next to – beside or adjacent to
Example: The bank is next to the supermarket.
Out of – from inside to outside; lacking
Example: She walked out of the room.
Example: We’re out of sugar.
With regard to – in connection with
Example: With regard to your request, we’ll get back soon.
In terms of – related to a specific aspect
Example: In terms of price, this phone is the best.
In case of – if something happens
Example: In case of fire, use the emergency exit.
At the moment – currently, now
Example: He is busy at the moment.
In charge of – responsible for
Example: She is in charge of the sales team.
By means of – using a method or tool
Example: He opened the box by means of a key.
In addition to – as well as
Example: In addition to English, she speaks French.
As far as – to the extent or degree
Example: As far as I know, he’s coming today.
Along with – together with
Example: She came along with her friend.
Instead of – in place of
Example: We stayed home instead of going out.
In favor of – supporting something
Example: The majority voted in favor of the new rule.
At risk of – in danger of
Example: The species is at risk of extinction.
With reference to – regarding something specific
Example: With reference to your letter, we agree.

These prepositional phrases are very common in both academic and everyday English, and understanding them can greatly improve your writing clarity and communication.

Group Verbs:

Here’s a list of group verbs along with their meanings and examples:

1. Act up

Meaning: To misbehave or function improperly. Example:

The children acted up during the movie, which annoyed everyone around them.

2. Add up

Meaning: To make sense, be logical, or equal in total. Example:

Her explanation doesn't add up; I think she's hiding something.

3. Ask around

Meaning: To ask several people the same question. Example:

I asked around, but no one has seen my missing keys.

4. Ask out

Meaning: To invite someone on a date. Example:

John asked Sarah out to dinner, and she said yes.

5. Act on

Meaning: To take action based on information or advice received. Example:

The police acted on the tip-off and arrested the suspect.

6. Account for

Meaning: To explain or justify. Example:

Can you account for the missing money?

7. Add in

Meaning: To include something in a group or collection. Example:

Don't forget to add in the cost of shipping when calculating the total.

8. Ask for

Meaning: To request something. Example:

He asked for a glass of water after his run.

9. Act out

Meaning: To express emotions or feelings through actions or behaviors. Example:

Children often act out their frustrations when they don’t know how to express them verbally.

10. Ask after

Meaning: To inquire about someone's well-being. Example:

He asked after your health during the meeting yesterday.

11. Agree with

Meaning: To share the same opinion or to support someone’s point of view. Example:

I agree with your suggestion to reschedule the meeting.

12. Aim at

Meaning: To target or focus on a particular goal or objective. Example:

This marketing campaign is aimed at young adults who enjoy outdoor activities.

13. Abide by

Meaning: To follow or adhere to rules, laws, or agreements. Example:

We must all abide by the terms and conditions of the contract.

14. Add up to

Meaning: To amount to or equal. Example:

The costs add up to more than I expected.

15. Allow for

Meaning: To take into account, consider. Example:

You should allow for extra time in case of traffic.

16. Apply for

Meaning: To make a formal request for something (such as a job or permit). Example:

She applied for a visa to visit her family abroad.

17. Act as

Meaning: To function or serve in a specific role. Example:

She acted as the spokesperson during the conference.

1. Back away

Meaning: To retreat or move backward, often in fear or hesitation. Example:

The dog barked loudly, and I had to back away slowly.

2. Back down

Meaning: To withdraw from a position, argument, or claim. Example:

She refused to back down from her stance on the issue.

3. Back up

Meaning: To support or provide assistance; to make a copy of data. Example:

Can you back up your argument with evidence?

4. Bank on

Meaning: To rely on or depend on something or someone. Example:

I’m banking on you to help me finish this project.

5. Blow up

Meaning: To explode; to get angry or upset. Example:

The car blew up when the engine caught fire.

6. Bring about

Meaning: To cause something to happen or come into effect. Example:

The new policies brought about significant changes in the company.

7. Bring along

Meaning: To take something or someone with you. Example:

I’m bringing along my friend to the party.

8. Bring back

Meaning: To return something to its original place; to remind someone of something. Example:

That old song brings back so many memories of my childhood.

9. Bring down

Meaning: To reduce, lower, or defeat. Example:

The scandal might bring down the mayor.

10. Bring forward

Meaning: To present or introduce something for discussion. Example:

He brought forward some important points during the meeting.

11. Bring in

Meaning: To introduce or make someone involved in something; to earn or generate. Example:

The company brought in a new consultant to improve the marketing strategy.

12. Bring on

Meaning: To cause or trigger something (usually negative). Example:

The argument brought on a lot of stress for both of them.

13. Bring out

Meaning: To make something visible or apparent; to release or publish. Example:

The new version of the software will bring out exciting features.

14. Brush off

Meaning: To dismiss or ignore someone or something. Example:

He brushed off her concerns, saying it wasn't a big deal.

15. Buckle down

Meaning: To start working hard, especially after a delay. Example:

You need to buckle down if you want to finish the project on time.

16. Burn out

Meaning: To become exhausted or overwhelmed due to overwork or stress. Example:

He burned out after working nonstop for 3 weeks.

17. Buy into

Meaning: To accept or believe in an idea, belief, or system. Example:

She bought into the idea of becoming an entrepreneur.

18. Break away

Meaning: To escape or separate from a group or situation. Example:

She decided to break away from the corporate world and start her own business.

19. Break down

Meaning: To stop functioning; to analyze something in detail. Example:

The car broke down in the middle of nowhere.

20. Break into

Meaning: To force entry into a place; to start doing something (usually a career or activity). Example:

The thieves broke into the house last night.

21. Break out

Meaning: To start suddenly (usually a conflict or disease); to escape from a place. Example:

A fire broke out in the kitchen.

22. Bring up

Meaning: To raise a topic or issue for discussion. Example:

She brought up an important point during the meeting.

23. Blow over

Meaning: To pass without causing any lasting harm or effects. Example:

The storm will blow over by tomorrow.

24. Burn up

Meaning: To consume completely by fire; to be angry or irritated. Example:

The forest fire burned up acres of land.

25. Break through

Meaning: To make a significant progress or advancement. Example:

Scientists have made a breakthrough in cancer treatment.

26. Break up

Meaning: To end a relationship or partnership; to disband a group. Example:

They broke up after five years of dating.

27. Bank on

Meaning: To rely on or depend on something happening. Example:

I’m banking on you to help me with the project tomorrow.

1. Call back

Meaning: To return a phone call.
Example: I’ll call you back after the meeting.

2. Call off

Meaning: To cancel something.
Example: The match was called off due to rain.

3. Call on

Meaning: To visit someone; to ask someone to speak.
Example: The teacher called on Tom to answer the question.

4. Call out

Meaning: To shout; to challenge someone publicly.
Example: She called out his lies in front of everyone.

5. Calm down

Meaning: To become or help someone become more relaxed.
Example: Please calm down and explain what happened.

6. Carry on

Meaning: To continue doing something.
Example: He carried on talking despite the noise.

7. Carry out

Meaning: To perform or execute a task.
Example: The team carried out the plan successfully.

8. Catch on

Meaning: To understand something; to become popular.
Example: The new fashion trend quickly caught on.

9. Catch up (with)

Meaning: To reach the same level as others; to exchange news.
Example: I need to catch up with my studies.
Let’s catch up over coffee sometime.

10. Check in

Meaning: To register at a hotel or airport.
Example: They checked in at the hotel at noon.

11. Check out

Meaning: To leave a hotel; to investigate.
Example: We checked out this morning.
You should check out that new restaurant.

12. Cheer up

Meaning: To become or make someone happier.
Example: Here’s a gift to cheer you up!

13. Chip in

Meaning: To contribute money or effort.
Example: We all chipped in to buy a gift for her birthday.

14. Clean up

Meaning: To tidy or remove dirt.
Example: Please clean up your room before guests arrive.

15. Clear up

Meaning: To make something clear; to become sunny.
Example: Let me clear up the confusion.
The weather is expected to clear up later.

16. Come across

Meaning: To find something by chance; to appear or seem.
Example: I came across an old photo album.
She comes across as very confident.

17. Come back

Meaning: To return.
Example: She came back from her vacation yesterday.

18. Come by

Meaning: To obtain; to visit.
Example: Good jobs are hard to come by.
Come by my office when you're free.

19. Come down with

Meaning: To become ill with something.
Example: I think I’m coming down with a cold.

20. Come out

Meaning: To be released or published; to become visible.
Example: The movie comes out next week.

21. Come over

Meaning: To visit someone’s home.
Example: Why don’t you come over for dinner?

22. Come up with

Meaning: To think of an idea or solution.
Example: She came up with a great marketing plan.

23. Count on

Meaning: To rely on or trust.
Example: You can count on me anytime.

24. Cross out

Meaning: To draw a line through something written.
Example: Cross out the wrong answers.

25. Cut down on

Meaning: To reduce consumption of something.
Example: I’m trying to cut down on sugar.

26. Cut off

Meaning: To stop or interrupt suddenly; to isolate.
Example: The phone call was cut off.

27. Cut out

Meaning: To remove by cutting; to stop doing something.
Example: You should cut out junk food.

28. Catch hold of

Meaning: To grab or seize suddenly.
Example: He caught hold of the rope just in time.

29. Come along

Meaning: To accompany or progress.
Example: Come along with us to the museum.

30. Come to

Meaning: To regain consciousness.
Example: After fainting, she slowly came to.

1. Deal with

Meaning: To handle or manage a situation or problem.
Example: She deals with customer complaints professionally.

2. Decide on

Meaning: To choose or select something after thinking.
Example: We finally decided on the blue paint for the room.

3. Die away

Meaning: To gradually become weaker or fade.
Example: The sound of the music died away as we walked further.

4. Die down

Meaning: To become less intense or noisy.
Example: The storm finally died down after midnight.

5. Do away with

Meaning: To get rid of something; abolish.
Example: The school has done away with final exams.

6. Do over

Meaning: To repeat or redo something.
Example: You’ll have to do the assignment over—it’s incomplete.

7. Do without

Meaning: To manage without something.
Example: We had to do without electricity for two days.

8. Draw back

Meaning: To retreat or move away from something.
Example: He drew back when he saw the snake.

9. Draw in

Meaning: To arrive (of a train); to attract.
Example: The train drew in at the station right on time.
The festival draws in thousands of tourists.

10. Draw out

Meaning: To encourage someone to speak more; to extend.
Example: The teacher tried to draw the shy student out.

11. Dress up

Meaning: To wear formal or fancy clothes.
Example: You don’t need to dress up for the picnic.

12. Drop by

Meaning: To visit someone briefly without an appointment.
Example: Feel free to drop by anytime you’re in town.

13. Drop off

Meaning: To deliver or leave something/someone; to fall asleep.
Example: I’ll drop off the package at your office.
He dropped off during the lecture.

14. Drop out (of)

Meaning: To withdraw from a course, school, or competition.
Example: She dropped out of college after one semester.

15. Dry up

Meaning: To lose moisture; to stop producing something.
Example: The river dried up after the long drought.

16. Double back

Meaning: To turn and go back the way you came.
Example: We had to double back to get the camera we left.

17. Dwell on

Meaning: To think or talk about something too much.
Example: Don’t dwell on your past mistakes.

18. Dig up

Meaning: To discover or reveal something hidden.
Example: The journalist dug up some shocking details.

19. Drag on

Meaning: To continue for too long and become boring.
Example: The meeting dragged on for hours.

20. Dash off

Meaning: To leave quickly or write something quickly.
Example: She dashed off a quick email before leaving.

1. Ease off / Ease up

Meaning: To reduce intensity or pressure.
Example: The traffic eased off after 8 PM.
You need to ease up on your workload.

2. Eat out

Meaning: To dine at a restaurant instead of at home.
Example: We usually eat out on weekends.

3. Eat up

Meaning: To consume all of something, usually food.
Example: The kids ate up all the cookies.

4. End up

Meaning: To eventually reach or do something, often unintended.
Example: He ended up working in a different industry.

5. Engage in

Meaning: To participate or become involved in an activity.
Example: They engaged in meaningful discussions.

6. Enter into

Meaning: To begin or become involved in something formally.
Example: The two companies entered into a partnership.

7. Explain away

Meaning: To justify or make excuses for something.
Example: She tried to explain away the error as a simple mistake.

8. Eye up

Meaning: To look at someone or something with interest or desire.
Example: He eyed up the last piece of cake.

9. Egg on

Meaning: To encourage someone to do something risky or foolish.
Example: He egged his friend on to jump into the pool.

10. Eke out

Meaning: To make something last longer by being frugal.
Example: They eked out their savings during the crisis.

1. Face up to

Meaning: To accept and deal with something difficult or unpleasant.
Example: You need to face up to your responsibilities.

2. Fall apart

Meaning: To break into pieces; to emotionally collapse.
Example: The old book fell apart in my hands.
She fell apart after the breakup.

3. Fall back on

Meaning: To rely on something when others fail.
Example: He had to fall back on his savings after losing his job.

4. Fall behind

Meaning: To fail to keep up with a schedule or others.
Example: I fell behind in my studies during my illness.

5. Fall for

Meaning: To fall in love with someone; to be deceived.
Example: He fell for her instantly.
Don’t fall for those online scams!

6. Fall out

Meaning: To have a disagreement or argument.
Example: They fell out over money and stopped talking.

7. Fall through

Meaning: To fail to happen or be completed.
Example: Our holiday plans fell through due to the storm.

8. Figure out

Meaning: To understand or solve something.
Example: I finally figured out how to fix the problem.

9. Fill in

Meaning: To complete a form; to temporarily replace someone.
Example: Please fill in this application form.
I’ll fill in for her while she’s on leave.

10. Fill out

Meaning: To complete something in detail (like a form).
Example: He filled out the entire questionnaire.

11. Fill up

Meaning: To make something completely full.
Example: She filled up the glass with water.

12. Find out

Meaning: To discover or learn information.
Example: I found out the truth yesterday.

13. Fit in

Meaning: To blend or belong socially or situationally.
Example: He doesn't fit in with the new team.

14. Fix up

Meaning: To repair or decorate; to arrange something.
Example: They fixed up the old house before selling it.
I’ll fix you up with a job interview.

15. Fizzle out

Meaning: To gradually end or lose strength.
Example: The protest started strong but fizzled out quickly.

16. Follow through

Meaning: To complete something as planned or promised.
Example: You must follow through with your commitments.

17. Follow up

Meaning: To check on something previously mentioned.
Example: I’m calling to follow up on our last conversation.

18. Freak out

Meaning: To become very upset or anxious.
Example: He freaked out when he lost his phone.

19. Freeze out

Meaning: To exclude or isolate someone.
Example: They tried to freeze her out of the decision-making.

20. Freshen up

Meaning: To wash and refresh oneself.
Example: I’ll freshen up before dinner.

1. Get across

Meaning: To successfully communicate an idea.
Example: He got his point across clearly in the meeting.

2. Get ahead

Meaning: To progress or succeed.
Example: She works hard to get ahead in her career.

3. Get along (with)

Meaning: To have a good relationship.
Example: I get along well with my coworkers.

4. Get around

Meaning: To travel or move from place to place.
Example: He gets around town on his bike.

5. Get at

Meaning: To imply or suggest something.
Example: What are you trying to get at?

6. Get away

Meaning: To escape or go on vacation.
Example: They got away for a weekend in the hills.

7. Get away with

Meaning: To do something bad without being punished.
Example: He got away with cheating on the test.

8. Get back

Meaning: To return.
Example: I’ll get back from work by 6 PM.

9. Get back at

Meaning: To take revenge.
Example: She got back at him for the prank.

10. Get back to

Meaning: To return to a task or someone.
Example: I’ll get back to you after lunch.

11. Get by

Meaning: To manage or survive.
Example: They get by on a very small income.

12. Get down

Meaning: To depress someone; to write something down.
Example: The bad news really got me down.
Get the number down before you forget.

13. Get in

Meaning: To enter.
Example: She got in through the back door.

14. Get off

Meaning: To leave a vehicle; to avoid punishment.
Example: He got off the bus at the next stop.
He got off with just a warning.

15. Get on

Meaning: To board; to make progress.
Example: She got on the train at noon.
He’s getting on well in his new job.

16. Get out

Meaning: To leave or escape.
Example: We need to get out of here quickly!

17. Get over

Meaning: To recover from something.
Example: She got over the flu in a few days.

18. Get through

Meaning: To finish; to make contact.
Example: I finally got through all the paperwork.
I couldn’t get through to him on the phone.

19. Get together

Meaning: To meet socially.
Example: Let’s get together this weekend.

20. Get up

Meaning: To rise from bed or a seated position.
Example: I get up at 6 AM every day.

1. Hand down

Meaning: To pass something to a younger generation.
Example: This necklace was handed down from my grandmother.

2. Hand in

Meaning: To submit something (like an assignment or report).
Example: Please hand in your homework by Friday.

3. Hand out

Meaning: To distribute.
Example: The teacher handed out the exam papers.

4. Hand over

Meaning: To give control or possession to someone else.
Example: He handed over the keys to the new owner.

5. Hang around

Meaning: To wait or spend time idly.
Example: They were hanging around outside the mall.

6. Hang back

Meaning: To hesitate or stay behind.
Example: He hung back while the others went inside.

7. Hang in

Meaning: To persist or remain strong in difficult situations.
Example: Hang in there, things will get better soon.

8. Hang on

Meaning: To wait; to hold tightly.
Example: Hang on a minute, I’ll be right back.
Hang on to the railing while climbing.

9. Hang out

Meaning: To spend time relaxing.
Example: We usually hang out at the café after school.

10. Hang up

Meaning: To end a phone call.
Example: She hung up before I could say goodbye.

11. Head for

Meaning: To move toward a specific destination.
Example: They headed for the beach after lunch.

12. Hear from

Meaning: To receive communication from someone.
Example: I haven’t heard from her in weeks.

13. Hit back

Meaning: To retaliate.
Example: He hit back after being insulted.

14. Hit on

Meaning: To flirt with someone; to discover something unexpectedly.
Example: He was hitting on her at the party.
I hit on a great idea during lunch.

15. Hit out at

Meaning: To attack verbally or physically.
Example: The minister hit out at the media’s criticism.

16. Hit up

Meaning: To ask someone for something (often money or a favor).
Example: He hit me up for a loan again.

17. Hold back

Meaning: To restrain or not show something.
Example: She held back her tears during the speech.

18. Hold on

Meaning: To wait; to keep holding something.
Example: Hold on, I’ll get my notebook.
Hold on tight while we drive through the bumps.

19. Hold out

Meaning: To last or resist.
Example: They held out until reinforcements arrived.

20. Hold up

Meaning: To delay; to rob.
Example: Traffic held me up.
The bank was held up by armed robbers.

1. Iron out

Meaning: To resolve differences or problems.
Example: They met to iron out the details of the agreement.

2. Inch along

Meaning: To move slowly and gradually.
Example: The traffic inched along the highway during rush hour.

3. Indulge in

Meaning: To allow oneself to enjoy something, often something unhealthy or luxurious.
Example: He indulges in chocolate every evening.

4. Infer from

Meaning: To deduce or conclude something based on evidence.
Example: We can infer from her silence that she disagrees.

5. Inform on

Meaning: To report someone’s wrongdoing to authorities.
Example: He was arrested after a friend informed on him.

6. Insist on

Meaning: To demand something forcefully.
Example: She insisted on paying the bill herself.

7. Interfere with

Meaning: To hinder or obstruct something.
Example: Don’t let your personal feelings interfere with your work.

8. Invest in

Meaning: To put money or time into something to gain a return.
Example: He invested in real estate to grow his wealth.

9. Invite over

Meaning: To ask someone to come to your home.
Example: We invited our neighbors over for dinner.

10. Issue out

Meaning: To distribute or release officially.
Example: The manager issued out the new ID cards to employees.

1. Jack up

Meaning: To increase (often prices); to lift something.
Example: The store jacked up the prices before the holiday.
We had to jack up the car to change the tire.

2. Jot down

Meaning: To write something quickly.
Example: I jotted down her phone number before I forgot it.

3. Jump at

Meaning: To accept something eagerly.
Example: He jumped at the chance to study abroad.

4. Jump in

Meaning: To enter into a conversation or activity suddenly.
Example: Feel free to jump in if you have any questions.

5. Jump on

Meaning: To criticize or scold someone quickly.
Example: She jumped on him for being late again.

6. Jump out at

Meaning: To be very noticeable or obvious.
Example: The error in the report jumped out at me immediately.

7. Join in

Meaning: To participate in an activity.
Example: Come join in the fun—we’re playing a game!

8. Juggle with

Meaning: To handle many tasks at once.
Example: She’s juggling with work, studies, and family responsibilities.

1. Keep at

Meaning: To persist with something.
Example: If you keep at it, you’ll eventually succeed.

2. Keep away (from)

Meaning: To stay at a distance; avoid.
Example: Please keep away from the edge of the cliff.

3. Keep back

Meaning: To restrain or hold something back.
Example: He kept back his anger during the meeting.

4. Keep down

Meaning: To control or suppress.
Example: Try to keep the noise down in the library.

5. Keep in

Meaning: To detain or hold someone indoors.
Example: The teacher kept the student in after class for extra work.

6. Keep off

Meaning: To avoid touching or stepping on something.
Example: Keep off the grass!

7. Keep on

Meaning: To continue doing something.
Example: She kept on talking despite the noise.

8. Keep out (of)

Meaning: To stay outside or avoid involvement.
Example: Keep out of this matter—it’s not your concern.

9. Keep to

Meaning: To follow a rule or limit.
Example: Please keep to the topic during your speech.

10. Keep up

Meaning: To maintain pace or level.
Example: He walks so fast I can’t keep up with him.

11. Kick off

Meaning: To begin something (especially an event).
Example: The ceremony kicked off with a welcome speech.

12. Kick out

Meaning: To force someone to leave.
Example: They were kicked out of the theater for misbehaving.

13. Knock down

Meaning: To demolish or hit someone or something to the ground.
Example: The old building was knocked down last week.

14. Knock out

Meaning: To make someone unconscious; to eliminate from competition.
Example: The boxer was knocked out in the first round.

15. Knock up

Meaning: (Informal) To make someone pregnant; to prepare quickly (UK).
Example: He knocked up a quick snack before leaving.
(Note: Use with caution as meanings vary.)

1. Laugh at

Meaning: To make fun of someone or something.
Example: The kids laughed at his silly hat.

2. Lay off

Meaning: To stop employing someone; to stop doing something.
Example: The company had to lay off several workers.
Lay off the sugar—it's bad for your health.

3. Leave out

Meaning: To omit or exclude.
Example: You left out an important detail in your story.

4. Let down

Meaning: To disappoint someone.
Example: She felt let down when he canceled the trip.

5. Let in

Meaning: To allow someone to enter.
Example: She opened the door and let the cat in.

6. Let off

Meaning: To excuse someone from punishment; to allow something (like fireworks) to explode.
Example: He was let off with a warning.
They let off fireworks to celebrate.

7. Let out

Meaning: To release; to make something larger (like clothes).
Example: He let out a sigh of relief.
She had her dress let out at the waist.

8. Light up

Meaning: To illuminate; to become visibly happy.
Example: The room lit up when she entered.
His face lit up when he saw the gift.

9. Line up

Meaning: To arrange people or things in a line; to organize.
Example: The students lined up for assembly.
They lined up several speakers for the event.

10. Live on

Meaning: To survive or subsist on.
Example: They live on a small pension.

11. Live up to

Meaning: To meet expectations or standards.
Example: The movie didn’t live up to the hype.

12. Look after

Meaning: To take care of someone or something.
Example: Can you look after my dog while I’m away?

13. Look ahead

Meaning: To think about and plan for the future.
Example: We need to look ahead to next year’s budget.

14. Look back (on)

Meaning: To reflect on the past.
Example: He looked back on his childhood with fondness.

15. Look down on

Meaning: To regard someone with disdain or superiority.
Example: She looks down on people who don’t speak English well.

16. Look for

Meaning: To search for something or someone.
Example: I’m looking for my keys—have you seen them?

17. Look forward to

Meaning: To be excited or eager for something.
Example: I’m looking forward to the weekend.

18. Look into

Meaning: To investigate or examine.
Example: The manager will look into the complaint.

19. Look out (for)

Meaning: To be cautious or to watch for danger.
Example: Look out! A car is coming.

20. Look up

Meaning: To search for information; to improve.
Example: I looked up the word in the dictionary.
Things are looking up for the company.

1. Make out

Meaning: To decipher, understand, or see clearly; to kiss or engage in intimate behavior.
Example: I couldn’t make out what she was saying due to the noise.
They were making out in the park.

2. Make up

Meaning: To invent or create something (often a story); to reconcile after a disagreement.
Example: She made up an excuse for being late.
They made up after their argument.

3. Make up for

Meaning: To compensate for something lost or wrong.
Example: He bought her flowers to make up for his mistake.

4. Make off with

Meaning: To steal something and run away.
Example: The thief made off with the stolen goods.

5. Mess around

Meaning: To engage in casual or non-serious activity; to waste time.
Example: Stop messing around and finish your homework!
They were messing around at the beach all day.

6. Mess up

Meaning: To make a mistake or cause something to go wrong.
Example: I messed up the presentation by forgetting my notes.

7. Move on

Meaning: To progress or leave behind; to change the subject.
Example: It’s time to move on from the past.
Let’s move on to the next topic.

8. Move in

Meaning: To begin living in a new place.
Example: They just moved in yesterday and are still unpacking.

9. Move out

Meaning: To leave a place, especially one’s home.
Example: He’s moving out of his apartment at the end of the month.

10. Mark down

Meaning: To write something down; to reduce the price.
Example: Please mark down the key points during the meeting.
They marked down the prices for the clearance sale.

11. Mark up

Meaning: To increase the price of something.
Example: The store marked up the prices of electronics during the holiday season.

12. Meet up

Meaning: To gather or meet someone, often informally.
Example: Let’s meet up at the café at 3 p.m.

13. Mix up

Meaning: To confuse two or more things; to blend ingredients.
Example: I mixed up the dates of the event.
She mixed up the ingredients for the cake.

14. Mess with

Meaning: To bother or interfere with someone or something; to cause trouble.
Example: Don’t mess with my phone!
She’s messing with the wrong crowd.

15. Make do

Meaning: To manage with what is available, even if it's not ideal.
Example: We didn’t have enough chairs, but we made do with what we had.

16. Make of

Meaning: To form an opinion or impression about something.
Example: What do you make of the new project proposal?

17. Motivate (someone) to

Meaning: To encourage or inspire someone to do something.
Example: Her speech motivated me to pursue my dreams.

1. Nail down

Meaning: To finalize or settle something; to secure.
Example: We need to nail down the details of the contract before signing.

2. Name after

Meaning: To give someone or something the same name as another person or thing.
Example: She was named after her grandmother.

3. Narrow down

Meaning: To reduce the number of options or possibilities.
Example: We need to narrow down the choices to just a few.

4. Nibble at

Meaning: To eat something slowly or in small amounts; to show slight interest in something.
Example: He nibbled at his sandwich while reading the newspaper.

5. Nod off

Meaning: To fall asleep, especially unintentionally.
Example: She nodded off during the movie.

6. Not add up

Meaning: To be inconsistent or make no sense.
Example: His story doesn’t add up, I think he’s lying.

7. Not be up to

Meaning: To be not capable or not interested in doing something.
Example: I’m not up to going out tonight, I’m feeling tired.

8. Not care for

Meaning: To dislike something or someone.
Example: I don’t care for this new music, it’s too loud.

9. Nurture (someone) with

Meaning: To care for, encourage, or support someone or something.
Example: They nurtured the plants with proper care and attention.

1. Open up

Meaning: To start talking about one's feelings or experiences; to open something (like a door).
Example: She finally opened up about her problems.
He opened up the store early this morning.

2. Opt out

Meaning: To choose not to participate in something.
Example: She opted out of the meeting because of her prior commitments.

3. Order around

Meaning: To give commands to someone in a rude or bossy way.
Example: Stop ordering me around—I'm not your servant!

4. Own up to

Meaning: To admit or confess to something.
Example: He owned up to breaking the vase.

5. Open up to

Meaning: To share one's thoughts and feelings openly with someone.
Example: She finally opened up to her friend about the situation.

6. Overcome with

Meaning: To be overwhelmed by something, often emotions.
Example: He was overcome with emotion when he saw the award.

7. Owe to

Meaning: To be indebted or responsible for something.
Example: I owe my success to my mentor's guidance.

8. Own up

Meaning: To take responsibility for something, often a mistake.
Example: You should own up to your mistakes instead of blaming others.

1. Pass away

Meaning: To die.
Example: His grandmother passed away last night.

2. Pass out

Meaning: To lose consciousness or faint.
Example: She passed out from the heat during the parade.

3. Pay back

Meaning: To return money owed to someone.
Example: I’ll pay you back the money I borrowed next week.

4. Pay off

Meaning: To complete a debt or to yield a beneficial result.
Example: He paid off his student loans after five years.
All her hard work paid off when she got the promotion.

5. Pick up

Meaning: To collect or gather; to learn or acquire something.
Example: Can you pick up the kids from school?
She quickly picked up French while living in Paris.

6. Pick out

Meaning: To choose or select something.
Example: She picked out a beautiful dress for the party.

7. Pick on

Meaning: To bully or tease someone.
Example: Stop picking on your little brother!

8. Point out

Meaning: To indicate or highlight something.
Example: He pointed out the flaws in the report.

9. Put off

Meaning: To postpone or delay something.
Example: We had to put off the meeting until next week.

10. Put up with

Meaning: To tolerate or endure something unpleasant.
Example: I can’t put up with his bad behavior any longer.

11. Put on

Meaning: To wear clothing or accessories; to pretend or feign.
Example: She put on her coat before heading out.
He put on a brave face despite the bad news.

12. Put out

Meaning: To extinguish something (like a fire); to inconvenience someone.
Example: Firefighters quickly put out the blaze.
Sorry to put you out, but can I borrow your laptop?

13. Put across

Meaning: To convey or communicate something clearly.
Example: She was able to put across her ideas effectively during the presentation.

14. Pile up

Meaning: To accumulate or gather in a large amount.
Example: The work began to pile up after the holiday.

15. Pass by

Meaning: To move past something or someone.
Example: We waved as they passed by on the street.

1. Quicken up

Meaning: To make something faster or to speed up.
Example: The driver quickened up when the light turned green.

2. Quiet down

Meaning: To become quieter or to reduce noise.
Example: The teacher asked the students to quiet down during the lesson.

3. Quarrel with

Meaning: To have a disagreement or fight with someone.
Example: She quarreled with her friend over a misunderstanding.

1. Run away

Meaning: To leave or escape from a place, often to avoid something.
Example: The child ran away from home after an argument.

2. Run into

Meaning: To unexpectedly meet someone; to collide with something.
Example: I ran into my old friend at the grocery store.
He ran into a tree while riding his bike.

3. Run out of

Meaning: To exhaust the supply of something.
Example: We ran out of milk, so we need to buy more.

4. Run over

Meaning: To drive a vehicle over something or someone; to exceed a limit (time).
Example: He accidentally ran over a pothole.
The meeting ran over by 30 minutes.

5. Rule out

Meaning: To eliminate or exclude something as a possibility.
Example: The doctor ruled out any serious illness after the tests.

6. Run across

Meaning: To find or discover something or someone unexpectedly.
Example: I ran across an interesting article while browsing the internet.

7. Run after

Meaning: To chase or pursue someone or something.
Example: She ran after the bus but couldn’t catch it in time.

8. Rack up

Meaning: To accumulate or increase something (usually a quantity or points).
Example: She racked up a lot of miles on her road trip.

9. Rise above

Meaning: To overcome a challenge or difficult situation.
Example: Despite the hardships, he managed to rise above the difficulties.

10. Roll out

Meaning: To launch or introduce something (often a product or service).
Example: The company will roll out the new version of their app next month.

1. Set up

Meaning: To arrange or organize something; to establish something.
Example: They set up a new office in the city center.
He set up a meeting for tomorrow.

2. Settle down

Meaning: To become calm or to establish a permanent residence or lifestyle.
Example: After years of traveling, they decided to settle down in a quiet town.
The children settled down after the teacher spoke to them.

3. Show up

Meaning: To appear or arrive at a place.
Example: She didn’t show up to the party last night.

4. Shut down

Meaning: To close or stop operations, typically of a business or machine.
Example: The company decided to shut down the factory due to low profits.
The computer shut down unexpectedly.

5. Speak up

Meaning: To express one’s opinion or thoughts clearly and audibly.
Example: Please speak up, I can’t hear you from the back.

6. Set aside

Meaning: To reserve something for a specific purpose; to disregard temporarily.
Example: They set aside funds for the new project.
He set aside his differences to focus on the work.

7. Sort out

Meaning: To organize or resolve a problem or situation.
Example: We need to sort out the issues before the deadline.

8. Stand by

Meaning: To support or remain loyal to someone or something; to be ready for action.
Example: I will stand by you no matter what.
The rescue team stood by, ready for the next move.

9. Stick to

Meaning: To continue doing something without changing; to adhere to something.
Example: You need to stick to the plan for it to work.
He stuck to his routine despite the challenges.

10. Stay up

Meaning: To remain awake beyond the usual time.
Example: She stayed up late finishing her assignment.

11. Slow down

Meaning: To decrease speed or intensity.
Example: The car slowed down as it approached the intersection.

12. Sort through

Meaning: To look at and organize items, often in a thorough or detailed manner.
Example: I need to sort through all these documents before the meeting.

13. Stand out

Meaning: To be noticeable or distinct from others.
Example: Her performance really stood out during the competition.

14. Save up

Meaning: To accumulate money or resources over time for a specific purpose.
Example: They are saving up for their dream vacation.

15. Slip up

Meaning: To make a mistake, often unintentionally.
Example: He slipped up during his speech and forgot his lines.

1. Take after

Meaning: To resemble or look like someone, typically a family member.
Example: She takes after her mother with her love for cooking.

2. Take off

Meaning: To become successful or popular quickly; to ascend (in an airplane).
Example: The new tech startup took off in its first year.
The plane will take off in a few minutes.

3. Take up

Meaning: To begin a new activity or hobby; to occupy space or time.
Example: He decided to take up photography last year.
This new project will take up all my time.

4. Take over

Meaning: To gain control or assume responsibility for something.
Example: The new manager will take over the team next month.

5. Tear down

Meaning: To destroy or demolish something.
Example: They are planning to tear down the old building to make room for a new one.

6. Think over

Meaning: To consider something carefully before making a decision.
Example: Take your time to think over the proposal before responding.

7. Throw away

Meaning: To dispose of something.
Example: Don’t throw away that old book, it’s a collector’s item!

8. Throw up

Meaning: To vomit; to cause something to be created or built in a short time.
Example: He felt sick and threw up after eating the spoiled food.
The construction company threw up a new office building in just six months.

9. Turn down

Meaning: To reject or refuse something; to decrease the volume or intensity.
Example: She turned down the job offer because it didn’t meet her expectations.
Can you turn down the music, please?

10. Turn in

Meaning: To submit something; to go to bed.
Example: Please turn in your assignment by the end of the week.
I’m really tired; I think I’ll turn in early tonight.

11. Turn out

Meaning: To result in a particular way; to attend an event.
Example: The event turned out to be a huge success.
Many people turned out for the concert.

12. Turn up

Meaning: To arrive or appear unexpectedly; to increase the volume or intensity.
Example: She turned up late to the meeting.
Can you turn up the heat? It’s cold in here.

13. Take in

Meaning: To absorb or understand something; to receive guests.
Example: She took in the information quickly and was able to solve the problem.
They took in a lot of tourists last summer.

14. Talk over

Meaning: To discuss something in detail.
Example: We need to talk over the project details before the meeting.

1. Use up

Meaning: To consume all of something.
Example: We’ve used up all the sugar, so we need to buy more.

2. Uplift (someone) up

Meaning: To raise someone's spirits or to elevate them emotionally.
Example: The kind words from her friend uplifted her after a tough day.

3. Upset (someone) over

Meaning: To make someone feel disturbed or distressed, often by a particular event or issue.
Example: The news of his departure really upset her over the weekend.

1. Vamp up

Meaning: To improve or update something, often in an appealing or stylish way.
Example: They vamped up the old house before selling it.

2. Vote on

Meaning: To make a decision about something through voting.
Example: The committee will vote on the proposal next week.

1. Wake up

Meaning: To stop sleeping and become conscious.
Example: I wake up early every day to exercise.

2. Walk away

Meaning: To leave a situation, especially when you are unhappy or dissatisfied with it.
Example: She decided to walk away from the argument rather than escalate it.

3. Warm up

Meaning: To prepare yourself or something for a particular activity by performing gradual actions.
Example: The coach asked the players to warm up before the game.

4. Wind up

Meaning: To conclude or finish something, often in a quick manner.
Example: We need to wind up the meeting in the next few minutes.

5. Work out

Meaning: To exercise or engage in physical activity; to find a solution to a problem.
Example: She works out at the gym every morning.
We need to work out a solution to this issue.

6. Watch out

Meaning: To be careful or pay attention to avoid danger.
Example: Watch out for the slippery steps!

7. Write up

Meaning: To write a detailed account or report about something.
Example: I need to write up a report on the meeting by the end of the day.

8. Wind down

Meaning: To relax or decrease intensity after a period of stress or activity.
Example: After a long day of work, I like to wind down by reading a book.

1. X out

Meaning: To cross something out, often indicating that it is removed or canceled.
Example: Please X out the incorrect answers on the form.

1. Yank out

Meaning: To pull something out suddenly and with force.
Example: He yanked out the drawer when it got stuck.

2. Yearn for

Meaning: To have a strong desire or longing for something.
Example: She yearned for a vacation after working nonstop for months.

1. Zero in on

Meaning: To focus attention on something or someone, usually to target or concentrate effort.
Example: The detective zeroed in on the suspect after gathering evidence.

Subject Verb Agreement:

Subject-Verb Agreement refers to the rule that the subject of a sentence must agree with its verb in number (singular or plural) and sometimes person (first, second, third).

1. Basic Rule

Singular subjects take singular verbs.
- Example: She walks to school.
Plural subjects take plural verbs.
- Example: They walk to school.

2. Rules and Examples

a. Compound Subjects

Joined by ‘and’ usually take a plural verb.
- Tom and Jerry are friends.
If the compound subject refers to one idea or thing, use singular verb.
- Peanut butter and jelly is my favorite lunch.

b. Subjects joined by ‘or’ / ‘nor’

The verb agrees with the nearest subject.
- Neither the teacher nor the students are ready.
- Either the students or the teacher is responsible.

c. Indefinite Pronouns

Singular: everyone, each, somebody, nothing, etc.
- Everyone is invited.
Plural: few, many, several, both.
- Many are missing.
Depends on context: all, some, most.
- All of the cake is gone. (cake = singular)
- All of the cookies are gone. (cookies = plural)

d. Collective Nouns

Treated as singular in American English.
- The team wins its games.
Can be plural in British English if individuals are emphasized.
- The team are wearing their uniforms.

e. Titles and Names

Titles of books, movies, or organizations are singular.
- "The Avengers" is a popular movie.

f. Distances, Amounts, and Periods

Treated as singular when regarded as a unit.
- Five years is a long time.
- Ten dollars is enough.

g. Inverted Sentences

Find the subject after the verb and ensure agreement.
- There is a problem.
- There are many problems.

3. Tips to Avoid Errors

Identify the true subject.
Watch out for intervening phrases or clauses.
- The bouquet of flowers is beautiful. (bouquet = singular)
Don’t get misled by words between the subject and verb.

Here are 100 common subject-verb agreement errors—grouped by error type, along with corrected versions:

A. Singular vs. Plural Mismatch (1–25)

Incorrect: She go to school.
Correct: She goes to school.
They was late.
They were late.
The dog bark loudly.
The dog barks loudly.
My friends lives nearby.
My friends live nearby.
The child eat apples.
The child eats apples.
He have a car.
He has a car.
It don’t work.
It doesn’t work.
They does the work.
They do the work.
Everyone know the answer.
Everyone knows the answer.
Someone are coming.
Someone is coming.
The teacher say we’re wrong.
The teacher says we’re wrong.
The girl run fast.
The girl runs fast.
The manager speak French.
The manager speaks French.
This seem strange.
This seems strange.
A cat like fish.
A cat likes fish.
He try hard.
He tries hard.
It appear to be broken.
It appears to be broken.
That student write well.
That student writes well.
A tree grow quickly.
A tree grows quickly.
My brother walk to work.
My brother walks to work.
The employee work hard.
The employee works hard.
Your phone ring constantly.
Your phone rings constantly.
My pen write well.
My pen writes well.
This dress fit nicely.
This dress fits nicely.
The baby cry often.
The baby cries often.

B. Collective Nouns (26–35)

The team are winning.
The team is winning.
The family have dinner.
The family has dinner.
The audience are clapping.
The audience is clapping.
The committee decide now.
The committee decides now.
The class are noisy.
The class is noisy.
The company were founded in 1990.
The company was founded in 1990.
The government have a plan.
The government has a plan.
The staff need a break.
The staff needs a break.
The crew are ready.
The crew is ready.
The jury were unfair.
The jury was unfair.

C. Indefinite Pronouns (36–55)

Everybody know him.
Everybody knows him.
Each of the girls are happy.
Each of the girls is happy.
Neither of them have come.
Neither of them has come.
Someone want coffee?
Someone wants coffee?
No one know the truth.
No one knows the truth.
Anybody have a pen?
Anybody has a pen?
Something look wrong.
Something looks wrong.
Nobody understand.
Nobody understands.
Everything work well.
Everything works well.
Anyone see him?
Anyone sees him?
Each of the books are missing.
Each of the books is missing.
One of the students were late.
One of the students was late.
Neither of the options are good.
Neither of the options is good.
Everybody want a prize.
Everybody wants a prize.
Each have a role.
Each has a role.
All is gone.
All are gone. (if referring to plural items)
Some is missing.
Some are missing. (plural noun implied)
Most of the data are accurate.
Most of the data is accurate. (if data = mass noun)
None are correct.
None is correct. (formal usage)
Much are needed.
Much is needed.

D. Compound Subjects (56–65)

John and Mary is here.
John and Mary are here.
My brother and I was going.
My brother and I were going.
The teacher and the principal was angry.
The teacher and the principal were angry.
A pen and a notebook is on the table.
A pen and a notebook are on the table.
Bread and butter are my favorite.
Bread and butter is my favorite. (considered a unit)
The singer and dancer are famous.
The singer and dancer is famous. (if it's one person)
Tom or Jerry are coming.
Tom or Jerry is coming.
Neither Jack nor Jill are tall.
Neither Jack nor Jill is tall.
Either the teacher or the students is wrong.
Either the teacher or the students are wrong. (closest subject = plural)
The dog or the cats is outside.
The dog or the cats are outside.

E. Distances, Money, Time (66–75)

Ten dollars are too much.
Ten dollars is too much.
Five miles are a long walk.
Five miles is a long walk.
Twenty minutes are enough.
Twenty minutes is enough.
Two hours were not enough.
Two hours was not enough.
A hundred years were a long time.
A hundred years was a long time.
Three thousand dollars are a high price.
Three thousand dollars is a high price.
Fifteen minutes go fast.
Fifteen minutes goes fast.
One million dollars are missing.
One million dollars is missing.
Sixty days is too short.
Sixty days are too short. (if referring to individual days)
Two-thirds is gone.
Two-thirds are gone. (depending on subject)

F. Tricky Sentences (76–100)

There is many reasons.
There are many reasons.
There are a book on the table.
There is a book on the table.
Here is the documents.
Here are the documents.
Neither of them like coffee.
Neither of them likes coffee.
The data is accurate.
The data are accurate. (traditional rule)
Mathematics are hard.
Mathematics is hard.
News are interesting.
News is interesting.
Politics are confusing.
Politics is confusing.
Economics are boring.
Economics is boring.
The United States are big.
The United States is big.
The scissors is sharp.
The scissors are sharp.
My trousers is dirty.
My trousers are dirty.
His belongings is here.
His belongings are here.
The police is coming.
The police are coming.
The cattle is grazing.
The cattle are grazing.
My glasses is lost.
My glasses are lost.
The news are good.
The news is good.
The headquarters is here.
The headquarters are here. (depends on context)
Five dollars buy little.
Five dollars buys little.
Two thirds of the pie is eaten.
Two thirds of the pie is eaten.
Two thirds of the cookies is gone.
Two thirds of the cookies are gone.
A number of students is present.
A number of students are present.
The number of students are high.
The number of students is high.
One of the books are missing.
One of the books is missing.
The pair of shoes are new.
The pair of shoes is new.

WH Questions:

Here's a detailed discussion on WH-questions, explained entirely through examples:

1. What are WH-Questions?

WH-questions are questions that begin with words like what, who, where, when, why, which, whom, whose, and how. These questions are used to ask for specific information, not just a "yes" or "no" answer.

2. Explanation and Examples of Each WH Word

What
Used to ask about things, actions, or information.

What is your name?
What do you want for lunch?
What happened yesterday?

Who
Used to ask about a person (as the subject of the sentence).

Who is knocking at the door?
Who called you last night?

Whom
Used to ask about a person (as the object), often in formal situations.

Whom did you see at the party?
Whom are you waiting for?
(Note: In everyday speech, people often just say “Who are you waiting for?”)

Where
Used to ask about places.

Where do you live?
Where is my phone?
Where are they going?

When
Used to ask about time.

When is your birthday?
When did the train arrive?
When are we leaving?

Why
Used to ask about reasons.

Why are you crying?
Why did she leave early?
Why are they upset?

Which
Used when choosing between options.

Which book do you want — the red one or the blue one?
Which dress should I wear?
Which road leads to the station?

Whose
Used to ask about possession (who something belongs to).

Whose bag is this?
Whose idea was it?
Whose phone rang just now?

How
Used to ask about manner, condition, or process.

How are you?
How does this machine work?
How do you make pancakes?

3. Word Order in WH-Questions

Most WH-questions follow this word order:
WH-word + helping verb + subject + main verb

Examples:

What do you want?
Where is he going?
Why did they leave?

But if the WH-word is the subject, you don’t need a helping verb.
Examples:

Who called you?
What happened next?

4. Common Mistakes to Avoid

Saying “What you want?” is incorrect. You should say: “What do you want?”
Saying “Where she is?” is wrong. It should be: “Where is she?”
Saying “Who you saw?” is wrong. You can say either:
- “Whom did you see?” (formal), or
- “Who did you see?” (informal)

One Word Expression:

One-word expressions followed by their meanings or descriptions. Here are 100 examples.

Word: Meaning / Definition

People & Professions

Teacher: One who teaches
Doctor: One who treats the sick
Engineer: One who designs or builds machines or structures
Artist: One who creates art
Driver: One who drives vehicles
Farmer: One who works on a farm
Pilot: One who flies aircraft
Actor: One who performs in plays or movies
Singer: One who sings
Author: One who writes books

Actions & Roles

Leader: One who leads
Reader: One who reads
Inventor: One who invents
Judge: One who gives legal decisions
Banker: One who works in a bank
Athlete: One who plays sports
Painter: One who paints
Dancer: One who dances
Poet: One who writes poems
Messenger: One who delivers messages

Animals & Creatures

Carnivore: One who eats meat
Herbivore: One who eats plants
Omnivore: One who eats both plants and meat
Hunter: One who hunts animals
Prey: One who is hunted

People Based on Behavior

Liar: One who tells lies
Thief: One who steals
Murderer: One who kills someone
Cheater: One who cheats
Beggar: One who begs

Tools & Objects

Calculator: A device that calculates
Microscope: Instrument to see tiny things
Telescope: Instrument to see distant objects
Thermometer: Instrument to measure temperature
Clock: Instrument to show time

Places

Hospital: A place where the sick are treated
School: A place where students learn
Library: A place where books are kept
Museum: A place where historical items are displayed
Zoo: A place where animals are kept

Negative Traits

Coward: One who lacks courage
Hypocrite: One who pretends to be what he is not
Traitor: One who betrays
Pessimist: One who expects the worst
Criminal: One who breaks the law

Positive Traits

Hero: One who is brave
Patriot: One who loves their country
Optimist: One who expects the best
Philanthropist: One who helps others generously
Gentleman: A polite and honorable man

One Who Studies

Historian: One who studies history
Geologist: One who studies earth and rocks
Biologist: One who studies living things
Astronomer: One who studies stars and planets
Psychologist: One who studies the mind

Science & Profession

Architect: One who designs buildings
Scientist: One who does scientific research
Economist: One who studies economics
Dentist: One who treats teeth
Pharmacist: One who prepares medicines

Miscellaneous Roles

Guardian: One who protects or takes care of someone
Donor: One who gives something
Host: One who receives guests
Guest: One who visits
Resident: One who lives in a place

Relationship Terms

Sibling: A brother or sister
Parent: One who has a child
Cousin: Child of your uncle or aunt
Spouse: A husband or wife
Guardian: One who legally takes care of a minor

People by Hobby or Belief

Traveler: One who travels
Shopper: One who shops
Believer: One who believes
Follower: One who follows
Worshiper: One who worships

Law & Order

Lawyer: One who practices law
Witness: One who sees an event
Accused: One who is blamed
Victim: One who suffers harm
Detective: One who investigates

Occupations Continued

Waiter: One who serves in a restaurant
Barber: One who cuts hair
Plumber: One who fixes pipes
Mechanic: One who repairs machines
Tailor: One who sews clothes

Special Roles

Ambassador: One who represents a country abroad
Refugee: One who flees their country
Immigrant: One who moves to another country
Tenant: One who rents property
Landlord: One who owns rented property

Religious Roles

Priest: One who performs religious duties
Monk: One who lives a religious life in simplicity
Nun: A woman dedicated to religious life
Prophet: One who speaks on behalf of God
Saint: One who is recognized for holiness

Final Few

Explorer: One who explores
Adventurer: One who seeks excitement
Opponent: One who is against
Supporter: One who supports
Volunteer: One who works without pay

Conditionals:

Here's a detailed discussion on conditionals in English grammar, including types, structure, and usage with clear examples:

What Are Conditionals?

Conditionals are sentences that describe a condition and its possible result. They often use the word "if" to show the condition. They express possibility, probability, or certainty about situations in the past, present, or future.

Parts of a Conditional Sentence

A typical conditional sentence has two parts:

If-clause – states the condition
Main clause – states the result

Example:
If it rains (if-clause), we will stay inside (main clause).

Types of Conditionals

There are five main types of conditionals:

1. Zero Conditional (General Truths / Scientific Facts)

Structure:
If + present simple, present simple

Use:
To express facts or things that are always true.

Examples:

If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
If it rains, the ground gets wet.
If you don’t water plants, they die.

2. First Conditional (Real Future Possibility)

Structure:
If + present simple, will + base verb

Use:
To talk about real and possible situations in the future.

Examples:

If I study hard, I will pass the exam.
If she calls, I will answer.
If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the trip.

3. Second Conditional (Unreal Present or Future)

Structure:
If + past simple, would + base verb

Use:
To talk about imaginary or unlikely situations in the present or future.

Examples:

If I had a car, I would drive to work.
If he were rich, he would travel the world.
If it snowed in summer, people would be surprised.

Note: “Were” is used with all subjects in formal English: “If I were”, not “If I was”.

4. Third Conditional (Unreal Past)

Structure:
If + past perfect, would have + past participle

Use:
To talk about imaginary situations in the past that didn’t happen.

Examples:

If I had studied, I would have passed the test.
If she had left earlier, she would have caught the train.
If they had invited me, I would have gone to the party.

5. Mixed Conditionals

Used when the time in the if-clause and the main clause are different.

Types:

Past → Present
If I had taken the job, I would be living in London now.
Present → Past
If he were smarter, he wouldn’t have made that mistake.

Inverted Conditionals (Formal Style)

Sometimes we invert the sentence by removing “if” and changing the word order, especially in formal writing.

Examples:

Had I known, I would have helped. (Instead of “If I had known…”)
Were I you, I would apologize.
Should you need help, call me.

Common Conditional Words Besides "If"

Unless = if not
- Unless you study, you won’t pass. (If you don’t study…)
Provided that / As long as / On condition that
- You can go out as long as you finish your homework.

Quick Summary:

Causative Verbs:

What Are Causative Verbs?

Causative verbs show that someone causes another person to do something. The subject doesn't do the action themselves—they make someone else do it.

Common causative verbs:
make, have, get, let, help, cause, force, allow, persuade, ask, order, etc.

Main Causative Verbs

1. Make – to force or cause someone to do something

Structure:
Subject + make + person + base verb

Examples:

The teacher made the students stay late.
She made him apologize.
Don’t make me cry.

2. Have – to give someone the responsibility to do something

Structure:
Subject + have + person + base verb
(For things: have + object + past participle)

Examples (person):

I had the plumber fix the leak.
She had her assistant type the email.

Examples (thing):

I had my car washed.
They had the house painted.

3. Get – to persuade or arrange for someone to do something

Structure:
Subject + get + person + to + verb
(For things: get + object + past participle)

Examples (person):

I got him to clean the room.
She got her friend to help her move.

Examples (thing):

I got my watch repaired.
We got the windows cleaned.

4. Let – to allow someone to do something

Structure:
Subject + let + person + base verb

Examples:

She let me borrow her car.
Don't let the kids stay up late.
He let us go early.

5. Help – to assist someone in doing something

Structure:
Subject + help + person + (to) + base verb

Examples:

He helped me (to) finish the project.
She helped her brother (to) find a job.

Note: “To” is optional with “help.”

Comparison of Structures

Examples Using Different Causatives

The teacher made the student write a report.
She had the maid clean the room.
He got his son to do the dishes.
They let their dog sleep inside.
We helped her (to) set up the tent.

Passive Causative

When we focus on the action or the object (not the person doing it), we use passive causative.

Structure:
Subject + have/get + object + past participle

Examples:

I had my hair cut yesterday.
They got their car serviced.
She had the documents printed.

Quick Tips

Use "make" when it's about force or strong influence.
Use "have" for arranged tasks or responsibilities.
Use "get" when you persuade or convince someone.
Use "let" for permission.
Use "help" for assisting.

Gender:

Here is a list of 100 uncommon and competitive-exam-relevant gender (masculine/feminine) changes. These are ideal for vocabulary enrichment and test prep.
Masculine : Feminine

Abbot : Abbess
Administrator : Administratrix
Actor : Actress
Author : Authoress
Bachelor : Spinster
Baron : Baroness
Benefactor : Benefactress
Bridegroom : Bride
Brother : Sister
Czar : Czarina
Duke : Duchess
Emperor : Empress
Enchanter : Enchantress
Executor : Executrix
Father : Mother
Fox : Vixen
Gander : Goose
Giant : Giantess
God : Goddess
Heir : Heiress
Hero : Heroine
Host : Hostess
Hunter : Huntress
Inspector : Inspectress
Jew : Jewess
King : Queen
Landlord : Landlady
Lion : Lioness
Lord : Lady
Manager : Manageress
Manservant : Maidservant
Mayor : Mayoress
Monk : Nun
Nephew : Niece
Patron : Patroness
Peacock : Peahen
Poet : Poetess
Policeman : Policewoman
Priest : Priestess
Prince : Princess
Prophet : Prophetess
Proprietor : Proprietress
Shepherd : Shepherdess
Signor : Signora
Sir : Madam
Son : Daughter
Sorcerer : Sorceress
Sultan : Sultana
Tiger : Tigress
Traitor : Traitress
Uncle : Aunt
Viscount : Viscountess
Waiter : Waitress
Wizard : Witch
Bachelor : Maid
Chaplain : Chaplainess
Donor : Donatrix
Count : Countess
Earl : Countess
Horse : Mare
Steward : Stewardess
Testator : Testatrix
Tutor : Tutress
Waiter : Serving maid
Workman : Workwoman
Actor : Comedienne
Gentleman : Gentlewoman
Governor : Governess
He-goat : She-goat
Host : Hostess
Jack : Jill
Killer : Murderess
Lad : Lass
Male : Female
Master : Mistress
Mister : Missus
Monk : Nun
Negro : Negress
Poet : Bardess
Policeman : Constable (female: Constable/Policewoman)
Postman : Postwoman
Reaper : Reaperess
Salesman : Saleswoman
Schoolmaster : Schoolmistress
Seamster : Seamstress
Serf : Serfmaid
Servant : Maid
Singer : Songstress
Slave : Bondmaid
Soldier : Woman soldier
Spokesman : Spokeswoman
Statesman : Stateswoman
Stallion : Mare
Tailor : Tailoress
Uncle : Aunt
Usher : Usherette
Washerman : Washerwoman
Widower : Widow
Wizard : Sorceress
Yeoman : Yeowoman

Uncommon Adjectives:

Here’s a list of 100 uncommon but useful adjectives, each paired with a relevant noun. These pairings enhance vocabulary for writing, speaking, and competitive exams.

Arduous journey
Blissful silence
Brisk reply
Callous remark
Candid confession
Caustic comment
Cerebral discussion
Chivalrous act
Clamorous crowd
Coherent argument
Colossal mistake
Complacent attitude
Concise explanation
Conspicuous error
Contemptuous glance
Cryptic message
Dainty figure
Dapper gentleman
Dauntless soldier
Debilitating illness
Decrepit building
Defiant tone
Delirious state
Demure smile
Desolate land
Despicable act
Detrimental habit
Devious plan
Dignified silence
Discreet inquiry
Disgruntled employee
Disheveled appearance
Dismal weather
Distant memory
Dogged determination
Dormant volcano
Dreary afternoon
Eerie silence
Effervescent personality
Elated mood
Eloquent speaker
Emaciated body
Enigmatic expression
Enticing aroma
Erratic behavior
Esoteric concept
Ethereal beauty
Evasive response
Exorbitant price
Exquisite design
Feeble attempt
Fervent plea
Flamboyant outfit
Fleeting thought
Flimsy excuse
Formidable opponent
Frigid wind
Frivolous comment
Gallant knight
Garrulous neighbor
Ghastly scene
Glum expression
Gregarious nature
Grim outlook
Grimy surface
Gullible child
Haggard face
Heinous crime
Hectic schedule
Hideous dress
Hoarse voice
Hostile crowd
Immaculate attire
Imminent danger
Impartial judge
Impervious surface
Imposing structure
Impudent reply
Inclement weather
Indignant protest
Inept performance
Inert material
Infinite possibilities
Innate talent
Insidious threat
Insolent behavior
Intrepid traveler
Irate customer
Itinerant lifestyle
Jaded expression
Jaunty manner
Jovial host
Judicious decision
Keen observer
Lethargic student
Livid reaction
Lucid explanation
Luminous glow
Meager salary
Menacing look

Relational Adjectives:

Here are some descriptive or relational adjectives—often of Latin or Greek origin—that are used in formal, poetic, or scientific contexts. Look at the list of 100 uncommon but meaningful adjective-noun pairs like:

King – Royal
Sun – Solar
Moon – Lunar
Star – Stellar
Night – Nocturnal
Day – Diurnal
Child – Infantile
Time – Temporal
Earth – Terrestrial
Sky – Celestial
War – Martial
Peace – Pacific
Mother – Maternal
Father – Paternal
Brother – Fraternal
Sister – Sororal
Death – Mortal
Life – Vital
Wind – Aeolian
Fire – Igneous
Water – Aquatic
Horse – Equine
Cow – Bovine
Dog – Canine
Cat – Feline
Snake – Serpentine
Bird – Avian
Fish – Piscine
Lion – Leonine
Wolf – Lupine
Pig – Porcine
Sheep – Ovine
Goat – Caprine
Bee – Apian
Eagle – Aquiline
Man – Human
Woman – Feminine
Book – Literary
Law – Legal
Mind – Mental
Heart – Cardiac
Blood – Sanguine
Bone – Osseous
Skin – Dermal
Eye – Optical
Ear – Auditory
Nose – Nasal
Tongue – Lingual
Tooth – Dental
Hand – Manual
Foot – Pedal
Voice – Vocal
Soul – Spiritual
God – Divine
Hell – Infernal
Heaven – Celestial
Country – National
City – Urban
Village – Rural
Mountain – Alpine
Sea – Marine
River – Fluvial
Forest – Sylvan
Tree – Arboreal
Flower – Floral
Leaf – Foliage
Fruit – Fruity (or Pomaceous)
Stone – Petrine (or Stony)
Wind – Ventilatory
Rain – Pluvial
Snow – Nival
Ice – Glacial
Cloud – Nebulous
Light – Luminous
Darkness – Tenebrous
Shadow – Umbral
Color – Chromatic
Sound – Acoustic
Smell – Olfactory
Taste – Gustatory
Touch – Tactile
Dream – Oneiric
Sleep – Hypnotic
Sleepwalker – Noctambulant
Truth – Veracious
Lie – Mendacious
Love – Amorous
Hate – Hostile
Fear – Timid
Courage – Valiant
Anger – Irascible
Wisdom – Sapient
Knowledge – Cognitive
Learning – Academic
Teacher – Pedagogic
Student – Disciple
Age – Senile
Youth – Juvenile
Marriage – Conjugal
War – Belligerent

Collective Nouns:

What Are Collective Nouns?

Collective nouns are words that refer to a group of people, animals, or things considered as a single unit. Even though they describe multiple entities, they are treated as singular in form (usually) and often take singular verbs.

Examples:

A team of players
A flock of birds
A bunch of grapes

Features of Collective Nouns:

Single Unit for Many: Refers to a group but is often treated as singular grammatically.
Example: The crowd is cheering.
Used with Specific Nouns: Certain collective nouns go with specific objects, animals, or people.
Example: A pride of lions, a bouquet of flowers
Contextual Verb Agreement:
- British English often uses plural verbs: The team are winning.
- American English usually uses singular verbs: The team is winning.

Types of Collective Nouns:

For People – army, team, class, committee
For Animals – herd, flock, pack, pride
For Things/Objects – bundle, bunch, fleet, stack

100 Commonly Used Collective Nouns

A band of musicians
A board of directors
A bouquet of flowers
A bunch of grapes
A cast of actors
A choir of singers
A class of students
A clan of relatives
A clump of trees
A cluster of stars
A collection of stamps
A colony of ants
A committee of experts
A company of actors
A congregation of worshippers
A crew of sailors
A crowd of people
A deck of cards
A drift of snow
A drove of cattle
A faculty of professors
A fleet of ships
A flock of birds
A flight of stairs
A forest of trees
A gang of robbers
A gaggle of geese
A group of friends
A horde of tourists
A host of angels
A herd of elephants
A heap of rubbish
A jury of peers
A litter of puppies
A mob of kangaroos
A nest of eggs
A orchestra of musicians
A pack of wolves
A panel of judges
A party of guests
A platoon of soldiers
A pod of dolphins
A posse of policemen
A pride of lions
A quiver of arrows
A range of mountains
A ring of thieves
A roll of film
A rope of pearls
A school of fish
A shoal of mackerel
A shower of rain
A stack of books
A staff of employees
A string of pearls
A suite of furniture
A swarm of bees
A team of players
A troop of scouts
A troupe of dancers
A village of people
A range of products
A batch of cookies
A brace of ducks
A brood of chicks
A cartload of goods
A chapter of books
A chorus of singers
A circle of friends
A cloud of dust
A combination of ideas
A company of soldiers
A convention of delegates
A conflagration of fires
A crash of rhinos
A den of thieves
A dominion of kings
A exaltation of larks
A field of athletes
A flight of birds
A flush of ducks
A galaxy of stars
A gleam of hope
A huddle of penguins
A leap of leopards
A murder of crows
A muster of peacocks
A parade of elephants
A party of politicians
A peal of bells
A pile of laundry
A plague of locusts
A plume of smoke
A rash of complaints
A rafter of turkeys
A rookery of penguins
A row of houses
A shoal of fish
A slate of candidates
A warren of rabbits

Confusing Words:

Here’s a list of 100 commonly misused or confusing words in English, especially useful for exams and spoken accuracy. Each word includes a simple sentence to demonstrate correct usage. These words are often mistaken in meaning, placement, or grammar:

Rather – I’d rather stay home than go out.
Besides – Besides math, she also excels in science.
Else – Who else is coming to the party?
Advice – He gave me useful advice. (noun)
Advise – I advise you to take rest. (verb)
Affect – The cold weather will affect my health.
Effect – The medicine had no side effect.
Accept – Please accept my apologies.
Except – Everyone came except John.
Access – I need access to the file.
Excess – He drinks in excess.
Loose – My shirt is too loose.
Lose – Don’t lose your keys.
Than – She is taller than me.
Then – We went to dinner, then a movie.
Lay – Lay the book on the table.
Lie – I need to lie down.
Rise – The sun will rise at 6 AM.
Raise – Raise your hand.
Farther – He walked farther than me.
Further – We need further information.
Fewer – Fewer people attended the event.
Less – There is less water in the bottle.
Between – The gift is between you and me.
Among – Distribute the sweets among the children.
Principal – The school principal is strict.
Principle – She follows strong moral principles.
Complement – The scarf complements her dress.
Compliment – He paid her a compliment.
Stationary – The car remained stationary.
Stationery – I bought some new stationery.
Emigrate – They emigrated from India.
Immigrate – They immigrated to Canada.
Imply – Are you implying I’m wrong?
Infer – I inferred he was upset.
Desert – The Sahara is a vast desert.
Dessert – I love chocolate dessert.
Loose – He tied a loose knot.
Everyday – It's an everyday routine.
Every day – I exercise every day.
Its – The dog wagged its tail.
It’s – It’s raining outside.
Your – Your bag is on the chair.
You’re – You’re going to love this movie.
Their – Their house is big.
There – There is a dog outside.
They’re – They’re coming soon.
Who – Who is knocking at the door?
Whom – Whom did you call?
Who’s – Who’s ready for a game?
Whose – Whose phone is this?
A lot – A lot of people came.
Allot – Please allot time for revision.
Aloud – He read the poem aloud.
Allowed – Phones are not allowed here.
Ensure – Ensure you lock the door.
Insure – Did you insure your car?
Assure – I assure you, it's safe.
Beside – She sat beside me.
Besides – Besides singing, she also dances.
Maybe – Maybe we’ll go later.
May be – He may be late.
Altogether – Altogether, it was a great day.
All together – We went all together.
Advice – She gave me good advice.
Advise – I advise caution.
Conscience – Follow your conscience.
Conscious – He is conscious of his actions.
Past – It happened in the past.
Passed – He passed the test.
Allude – He alluded to her success.
Elude – The criminal eluded the police.
Moral – The moral of the story is clear.
Morale – The team’s morale is high.
Precede – A flash of light preceded the thunder.
Proceed – Please proceed with your work.
Prescribe – The doctor prescribed medicine.
Proscribe – Smoking is proscribed here.
Capital – Paris is the capital of France.
Capitol – The Capitol is where laws are made.
Disinterested – A judge must be disinterested.
Uninterested – She is uninterested in sports.
Ingenious – He came up with an ingenious plan.
Ingenuous – She is ingenuous and honest.
Historic – It was a historic victory.
Historical – This is a historical novel.
Economic – Economic growth is essential.
Economical – A bicycle is economical.
Classic – That’s a classic novel.
Classical – She loves classical music.
Continual – The continual noise is irritating.
Continuous – The rain was continuous.
Elicit – His joke elicited laughter.
Illicit – They were caught with illicit drugs.
Loathe – I loathe cruelty.
Loath – He was loath to admit the truth.
Allusion – He made an allusion to Shakespeare.
Illusion – It was just an illusion.
Cue – That’s your cue to speak.
Queue – We stood in a long queue.

Spoken English:

Here are 100 practical guidelines and rules to help improve your spoken English fluency, especially useful for learners preparing for interviews, public speaking, or competitive exams:

Foundational Rules (1–20)

Think in English, not in your native language.
Speak every day, even if it’s alone.
Use simple sentences first, then build complexity.
Don’t fear mistakes—they’re part of learning.
Listen more than you speak in early stages.
Repeat after native speakers to copy rhythm and intonation.
Record your speech and play it back.
Learn sentence patterns, not just vocabulary.
Practice common daily conversations (shopping, greeting, etc.).
Focus on clarity over speed.
Master basic grammar rules (tenses, articles, prepositions).
Use contractions (I’m, don’t, can’t) naturally.
Avoid translating from your first language.
Use gestures and body language to support speech.
Build confidence with rehearsed dialogues.
Don’t worry about accent, focus on pronunciation.
Start with present tense usage first.
Watch your mouth movement in the mirror.
Be patient and consistent.
Celebrate small improvements.

Vocabulary & Phrasing (21–40)

Learn 5 new words daily.
Use synonyms to avoid repetition.
Practice phrasal verbs (e.g., give up, turn on).
Use idioms appropriately.
Understand collocations (make a mistake, do homework).
Use context to guess meanings.
Group words by themes (kitchen, office, school).
Practice antonyms and homophones.
Learn root words and prefixes.
Use vocabulary notebooks or apps.
Use strong verbs instead of adverb-heavy phrases.
Try vocabulary games.
Speak using full sentences, not just words.
Don’t overuse fillers like “um,” “you know,” “like.”
Practice “word stress” and sentence stress.
Learn commonly confused words (lose/loose, effect/affect).
Avoid complex vocabulary unless necessary.
Listen and note useful phrases.
Use new words in your speech immediately.
Review old vocabulary regularly.

Pronunciation & Accent (41–60)

Break words into syllables.
Use tongue twisters to improve clarity.
Practice shadowing (imitate audio instantly).
Focus on intonation patterns (rise/fall of voice).
Use online pronunciation dictionaries.
Train difficult sounds (th, r, v, z, etc.).
Listen to your favorite English speaker daily.
Copy the rhythm of native speech.
Pause naturally, not after each word.
Avoid monotone speech.
Sing English songs for fluency.
Record tongue twisters and evaluate.
Watch your vowel sounds.
Distinguish long vs short vowels.
Link words together in speech (connected speech).
Learn stress-timed vs syllable-timed rhythm.
Use subtitles first, then audio-only.
Mimic emotional tone, not just words.
Practice minimum pairs (ship/sheep, bed/bad).
Avoid mumbling—open your mouth while speaking.

Practice & Immersion (61–80)

Join speaking clubs or conversation circles.
Teach someone English—it helps retention.
Use English in social media posts.
Label things in your room in English.
Narrate your actions aloud (I’m brushing my teeth).
Read aloud every day.
Practice English while thinking, not just speaking.
Imitate scenes from English movies.
Talk to voice assistants in English (Siri, Alexa).
Start a daily audio journal.
Practice dialogue writing, then speak it.
Learn one topic in depth and explain it in English.
Call a friend just to speak in English.
Don’t rely only on grammar books.
Use “speak and translate” apps as backup.
Participate in English debates or extempore.
Set daily speaking goals (5 minutes, 10 minutes).
Listen to podcasts and summarize aloud.
Visualize speaking confidently.
Use mirrors or front camera to practice expression.

Fluency and Confidence (81–100)

Fluency > Accuracy initially.
Use common connectors (however, although, meanwhile).
Don't stop after small errors—keep talking.
Use polite fillers (actually, by the way, I mean).
Practice speaking on random topics.
Repeat practice dialogues with variation.
Learn to ask questions confidently.
Don’t be afraid to ask for repetition.
Build mental maps of responses for common questions.
Use humor and anecdotes in speaking.
Get feedback from fluent speakers.
Rehearse speeches or monologues.
Visualize a positive audience reaction.
Stay calm during pauses or mistakes.
Avoid translating jokes literally—use idiomatic humor.
Read English news headlines aloud daily.
Start and end conversations politely.
Keep your body language confident.
Smile and maintain eye contact when speaking.
Enjoy the journey—language is a lifelong skill.

Thank You